1. Introduction Ecosystem-Specific Tools and Technologies Coastal/Marine

Coastal/Marine>Mangroves>India

Manual on Mangrove Nursery Raising Techniques

The techniques for mangrove nursery design, establishment and operation, and the use of nursery stock for mangrove restoration, which are described in this manual will help in raising mangrove nurseries and in the restoration of degraded mangroves, involving local communities.

Practitioners

Ravishankar, T. and R. Ramasubramanian (2004) Manual on mangrove nursery techniques. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation; Chennai, India.

http://info.frim.gov.my/cfdocs/tsonami2/Ravishankar,%20T.%20and%20R.%20Ramasubramanian.%202004.Mangrove%20Nursery%20Manual.pdf

Impact of Eco-restoration on the Biodiversity of Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystem, India

A comprehensive study on biodiversity and environmental characteristics of three different selected study sites located on different estuarine networks viz. Matla, Saptamukhi, and Hooghly on eastern, central, and western regions, having different environmental features of Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystem, India, a World Heritage Site, was conducted through six seasons of consecutive 2 years. The different sites understudy have shown variable species composition. Special emphasis was made to record the population structure of benthic fauna, which exhibited maximum density during pre-monsoon followed by monsoon and post-monsoon.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Chakraborty, S. K., S. Giri, G. Chakravarty and N. Bhattacharya (2009) Impact of Eco-restoration on the Biodiversity of Sundarbans Mangrove Ecosystem, India. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 9(3-4): 303-320.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/7l8l700h76u04622/

Coastal/Marine>Mangroves>Indonesia

Study of Lessons Learned from Mangrove/Coastal Ecosystem Restoration Efforts in Aceh since the Tsunami

In this study, the causes of failures have been identified and extracted from a variety of stakeholders. It is important that all stakeholders in Aceh be informed of these so that they can avoid the factors that contribute to failure. In this way, past mistakes can be prevented from being repeated in the future. In addition, this study also provides a range of information, experience, strategies and other matters relevant to supporting the rehabilitation activities undertaken by both government and NGOs.

Implementing agencies, policymakers

Wibisono, I.T.C. and I.N.N. Suryadiputra (2006) Study of Lessons Learned from Mangrove/Coastal Ecosystem Restoration Efforts in Aceh since the Tsunami. Wetlands International – Indonesia Programme. Bogor.

http://www.wetlands.or.id/PDF/buku/Lessons%20Learned%20in%20Aceh%20by%20WIIP.pdf

Coastal/Marine>Salt Marshes

Coastal/Marine>Salt Marshes>USA

Accelerating the Restoration of Vegetation in a Southern California Salt Marsh

Re-establishing plant cover is essential for restoring ecosystem functions, but revegetation can be difficult in severe sites, such as salt marshes that experience hypersalinity and sedimentation. We tested three treatments (adding tidal creeks, planting seedlings in tight clusters, and rototilling kelp compost into the soil) in a site that was excavated to reinstate tidal flows and restore salt marsh. The magnitude of responses was the reverse of expectations, with tidal creeks having the least effect and kelp compost the most.

Practitioners

O’Brien, E.L. and J.B. Zedler (2006) Accelerating the Restoration of Vegetation in a Southern California Salt Marsh. Wetlands Ecology and Management 14: 269-286.

http://www.botany.wisc.edu/zedler/images/O'Brien.pdf

Declining Diversity in Natural and Restored Salt Marshes: A 30-Year Study of Tijuana Estuary

In a 2000 restoration site, planting mortality was high for five species, but Sv recruited voluntarily and dominated by 2005. We attribute recent vegetation changes to frequent catastrophic storms, flooding, and sedimentation, which contrasted strongly with the benign conditions of decades prior to 1974. Sediment blocked tidal channels in 1984 and gradually elevated the marsh plain, degrading the diverse salt marsh and hindering efforts to restore it. Future restoration efforts will require even greater control over sediment inflows plus contouring sites to include natural topographic features that appear critical to sustaining high species richness and evenness.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Zedler, J.B. and J.M. West (2008) Declining Diversity in Natural and Restored Salt Marshes: A 30-Year Study of Tijuana Estuary. Restoration Ecology 16(2): 249-262.

http://nctc.fws.gov/EC/Resources/fwca/Climate%20Change/Saltmarshes%20and%20CC.pdf

Coastal/Marine>Seagrass Meadows

Chapter on Seagrass Restoration in

Perillo, G., E. Wolanski, D. Cahoon and M. Brinson (2009) Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach. Elsevier Science.

http://www.seagrassrestorationnow.com/docs/Paling%20et%20al%202009%20Chap%2024%20seagrass%20rest.pdf

Coastal/Marine>Seagrass Meadows>Australia

Facilitating Recruitment of Amphibolis as a Novel Approach to Seagrass Rehabilitation in Hydrodynamically Active Waters

Traditional methods of seagrass restoration are expensive and have had limited success owing to high wave energy. We investigated a range of biodegradable substrates, mostly made of hessian (burlap), to enhance Amphibolis recruitment as an alternative. The technique may represent a non-destructive, cost-effective (AU $10 000 ha^-1) method to restore Amphibolis over large spatial scales and in areas that are hydrodynamically too active for traditional techniques, thus helping ameliorate some of the large-scale losses of seagrasses that have occurred globally.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Wear,R.J., J.E. Tanner and S.L. Hoare (2010) Facilitating Recruitment of Amphibolis as a Novel Approach to Seagrass Rehabilitation in Hydrodynamically Active Waters. Marine and Freshwater Research 61: 1123-1133.

http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MF09314

Coastal/Marine>Seagrass Meadows>Europe

Guidelines for Seagrass Restoration: Importance of Habitat Selection and Donor Population, Spreading of Risks, and Ecosystem Engineering Effects

Large-scale losses of seagrass beds have been reported for decades and lead to numerous restoration programs. From worldwide scientific literature and 20 years of seagrass restoration research in the Wadden Sea, we review and evaluate the traditional guidelines and propose new guidelines for seagrass restoration.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

van Katwijk, M.M., A.R. Bos, V.N. de Jonge, L.S.A.M. Hanssen, D.C.R. Hermus and D.J. de Jong (2009) Guidelines for Seagrass Restoration: Importance of Habitat Selection and Donor Population, Spreading of Risks, and Ecosystem Engineering Effects. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58(2): 179-188.

http://www.eco.science.ru.nl/aqbiol/personel/van%20Katwijk%20et%20al.%20MarPollBull%202009.pdf

Coastal/Marine>Seagrass Meadows>USA

A Multiscale Approach to Seagrass Recovery in Tampa Bay, Florida

Recovery of seagrass coverage in Tampa Bay, Florida, to levels observed in 1950 (15,380 ha) is a long-term goal adopted by local, state, federal, and private partners participating in the Tampa Bay Estuary Program. However, seagrass coverage in all areas of the bay is not increasing at the same rate. Wave energy and tidal scour affect longshore sandbars, and in turn seagrass recovery in some areas. Localized water quality factors, including colored dissolved organic matter and turbidity may have impacts on seagrass growth in other areas. Have we had an effect on seagrass recovery in Tampa Bay? Yes, but it will take more than maintaining a successful nutrient management strategy to reach the recovery goal. A multiscale adaptive research and application approach is currently underway to ensure continuation of the upward trend in Tampa Bay seagrass coverage.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Greening, H.S., L.M. Cross and E.T. Sherwood (2011) A Multiscale Approach to Seagrass Recovery in Tampa Bay, Florida. Ecological Restoration 29(1-2): 82-93.

http://er.uwpress.org/content/29/1-2/82.short

Eelgrass Restoration by Seed Maintains Genetic Diversity: Case Study from a Coastal Bay System

Genetic diversity is positively associated with plant fitness, stability, and the provision of ecosystem services. Preserving genetic diversity is therefore considered an important component of ecosystem restoration as well as a measure of its success. We examined the genetic diversity of restored Zostera marina meadows in a coastal bay system along the USA mid-Atlantic coast using microsatellite markers to compare donor and recipient meadows. We hypothesize that the high genetic diversity in seagrasses restored using seeds rather than adult plants confers a greater level of ecosystem resilience to the restored meadows.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Reynolds, L.K., M. Waycott, K.J. McGlathery, R.J. Orth and J.C. Zieman (2012) Eelgrass Restoration by Seed Maintains Genetic Diversity: Case Study from a Coastal Bay System. Marine Ecology Progress Series 448: 223-233.

http://www.int-res.com/articles/theme/m448p223.pdf

Innovative Techniques for Large-scale Seagrass Restoration Using Zostera marina (eelgrass) Seeds

The use of Zostera marina (eelgrass) seeds for seagrass restoration is increasingly recognized as an alternative to transplanting shoots as losses of seagrass habitat generate interest in large-scale restoration. We explored new techniques for efficient large-scale restoration of Z. marina using seeds by addressing the factors limiting seed collection, processing, survival, and distribution. We tested an existing mechanical harvesting system for expanding the scale of seed collections, and developed and evaluated two new experimental systems. A seeding technique using buoys holding reproductive shoots at restoration sites to eliminate seed storage was tested along with new techniques for reducing seed-processing labor. A series of experiments evaluated storage conditions that maintain viability of seeds during summer storage for fall planting. Finally, a new mechanical seed-planting technique appropriate for large scales was developed and tested.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Marion, S.R. and R.J. Orth (2010) Innovative Techniques for Large-scale Seagrass Restoration Using Zostera marina (eelgrass) Seeds. Restoration Ecology 18(4): 514-526.

http://www.chesapeake.org/OldStac/savrest/Marion_Orth2010.pdf

Evaluating a Large-Scale Eelgrass Restoration Project in the Chesapeake Bay

Submerged aquatic vegetation habitat quality based on the PTSI, median PLL during the growing season, and test plantings did not explain the decline of the plantings. Restoration site selection criteria should be expanded to include the effects of wave exposure on self-shading and epiphyte loads, and the potential for both short-term exposures to stressful conditions and long-term changes in habitat quality.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Tanner, C. et al (2010) Evaluating a Large-Scale Eelgrass Restoration Project in the Chesapeake Bay. Restoration Ecology 18(4): 538-548.

http://www.chesapeake.org/OldStac/savrest/Tanner_etal2010.pdf

Southern California Giant Kelp Restoration Project

California Coastkeeper Alliance and participating Waterkeepers launched the six-year Kelp Project in the Southern California Bight in 2001. Participating Waterkeepers included Santa Barbara Channelkeeper, Santa Monica Baykeeper, Orange County Coastkeeper (2001-2005), and San Diego Coastkeeper. CCKA coordinated the Project, operated a laboratory to grow transplant kelp, fundraised, provided administrative support, and from 2005-2007 conducted kelp restoration, education and outreach in Orange County. The Kelp Project embodies the Waterkeeper vision of fully protecting waters and the life that inhabits them in our patrol areas.

Implementing agencies

California Coastalkeeper Alliance

http://www.cacoastkeeper.org/document/final-kelp-project-report.pdf

Restoration of Seagrass Habitat in Tampa Bay Using Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) Sod Units

The final project monitoring results show that the manatee grass transplanting effort was completed successfully. First, the donor site monitoring indicated that disturbances caused by harvesting were fully mitigated within the two year study period. Second, about 1300m2 of manatee grass were established in an area previously devoid of this species. Third, at the end of the study period the per unit area above ground biomass of the restored manatee grass in several of the planting plots was similar to, or may have exceeded the biomass of the donor grass at the time of harvest. Finally, several of the restored meadows have been actively expanding in area coverage at a rate similar to natural growing manatee grass meadows.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Johansson, J.O.R., W.M. Avery, K.B. Hennenfent and J.J. Pacowta (2009) Restoration of Seagrass Habitat in Tampa Bay Using Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) Sod Units. Prepared for the Hillsborough County Environmental Recovery Fund, Project 06-02.

http://www.tampabay.wateratlas.usf.edu/upload/documents/TBEP_01_09_SeagrassRestorationUsingLargeManateeGrassSods_smaller.pdf

Coastal/Marine>Shellfish Beds>USA

Practitioner’s Guide to Shellfish-Based Living Shorelines for Salt March Erosion Control and Environmental Enhancement in the Mid-Atlantic

The first objective of this report is to summarize climate adaptation tactics that are environmentally friendly approaches to help stabilize seaward edge erosion, thereby encouraging vertical accretion of tidal marshes. The second objective of this report is to provide a “how-to guide” for a new living shoreline approach developed jointly by PDE and Rutgers and which is tailored to salt marshes of the Delaware Estuary. This tactic is best suited for low energy areas and would need to be paired with more aggressive measures along high energy coastlines.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Whalen, L., D. Kreeger, D. Bushek, J. Moody and A. Padeletti (2011) Practitioner’s Guide to Shellfish-Based Living Shorelines for Salt March Erosion Control and Environmental Enhancement in the Mid-Atlantic. Partnership for the Delaware Estuary and Rutgers Haskin Shellfish Laboratory.

http://www.delawareestuary.org/pdf/Living%20Shorelines/DELSI%20Practitioners%20Guide%20v9.7.11.pdf

Contemporary Approaches for Small-scale Oyster Reef Restoration to Address Substrate versus Recruitment Limitation

This paper was originally presented at the first West Coast Restoration Workshop in 2006 in San Rafael, California and is intended to summarize potential approaches for small-scale restoration projects, including some emerging methods, and highlight the logistical benefits and limitations of these approaches. Because the majority of the past efforts have been with C. viriginica, we use those examples initially to highlight efforts with the intent of enlightening current west coast United States efforts with Ostrea lurida. We also discuss site-specific characteristics including ‘‘recruitment bottlenecks’’ and ‘‘substrate limitation’’ as criteria for identifying the most appropriate approaches to use for small-scale restoration projects. Many of the included ‘‘lessons-learned’’ from the smaller-scale restoration projects being implemented today can be used to inform not only large-scale estuary wide efforts to restore C. virginica, but also the relatively nascent efforts directed at restoring the United States west coast’s native Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida.

Practitioners

Brumbaugh, R.D. and L.D. Coen (2009) Contemporary approaches for small-scale oyster reef restoration to address substrate versus recruitment limitation: A review and comments relevant for the Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida Carpenter 1864. Journal of Shellfish Research 28: 147–161

http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.2983/035.028.0105

Native Oyster Restoration in Maryland and Virginia: An Evaluation of Lessons Learned 1990-2007

The team’s activities have highlighted the strengths and weaknesses of oyster restoration efforts over the past 18 years and the utility of the data collected to monitor them. While this examination has been informative, its greatest value is to define future oyster restoration activities — specifically, to construct guidelines that will help maximize return on the large investment of effort and funding that will be made in the coming years. Perhaps the greatest lesson of the Oyster Restoration Evaluation Team effort is the recognition that the techniques, sampling protocols and stock assessment methods used to date are inadequate to assess real changes in oyster populations, locally or regionally, and that wholesale change is necessary to design and implement sound stock assessment and monitoring protocols and procedures in order to fully assess the health and growth of a recovering oyster population.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

J.G. Kramer and K.G. Sellner (eds.) (2009) Native Oyster (Crassostrea virginica) Restoration in Maryland and Virginia. An evaluation of lessons learned 1990-2007. Maryland Sea Grant Publication #UM-SG-TS-2009-02; CRC Publ. No. 09-168, College Park, MD.

http://www.chesapeake.org/pubs/Oyster%20Restoration%20Report.pdf

Drylands

On the Restoration of Degraded Drylands

Recent advances in our understanding of dryland ecology have improved traditional restoration techniques and fostered the development of new eco-technology. However, the refinement of eco-technological tools and the success of experimental restoration projects have not been accompanied by parallel increases in the efficiency and reliability of management-scale restoration programs. In our experience, this is the result of uncertainties about the long-term effects of restoration actions, scarce knowledge on population and community dynamics, and cultural and socioeconomic constraints to the implementation of new techniques and the improvement of traditional ones. We suggest that 1) adopting the ecosystem service approach to identify restoration targets and evaluate restoration actions, 2) integrating restoration actions into comprehensive development programs, and 3) creating networks of pilot and demonstration projects may foster participative, adaptive and integrative management plans, and contribute to livelihood quality in desertified areas.

Implementing agencies

Cortina, J., B. Amat, M. Derak, M.J. Ribeiro Da Silva, K.B. Disante, D. Fuentes, J. Tormo and R. Truba (2011) On the restoration of degraded drylands. Secheresse 22: 69-74.

http://www.jle.com/e-docs/00/04/68/CC/vers_alt/VersionPDF.pdf

Restoration and Rehabilitation of Degraded Ecosystems in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands. I. A View from the South

A general model is presented describing ecosystem degradation to help decide when restoration, rehabilitation, or reallocation should be the preferred response. The latter two pathways are suggested when one or more “thresholds of irreversibility” have been crossed in the course of ecosystem degradation, and when “passive” restoration to a presumed predisturbance condition is deemed impossible. The young but burgeoning field of ecological restoration, and the older field of rehabilitation and sustainable range management of arid and semiarid lands (ASAL), are found to have much in common, especially compared with the reallocation of lands, which is often carried out without reference to pre-existing ecosystems. After clarifying some basic terminology, we present 18 vital ecosystem attributes for evaluating stages of degradation and planning experiments in the restoration or rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems. Finally, we offer 10 hypotheses concerning ecological restoration and rehabilitation as they apply to ASAL and perhaps to all terrestrial ecosystems.

Policymakers, implementing agencies

Aronson, J., C. Floret, E. Le Floch, C. Ovalle and R. Pontanier (1993) Restoration Ecology 1(1): 8-17.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.1993.tb00004.x/abstract

Restoration and Rehabilitation of Degraded Ecosystems in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands. II. Case Studies in Southern Tunisia, Central Chile and Northern Cameroon

A model of ecosystem degradation and three possible responses to it—restoration, rehabilitation, and real-location—is applied to ongoing projects in the arid mediterranean region of southern Tunisia, the subhumid mediterranean region of central Chile, and the semiarid tropical savannas of northern Cameroon. We compare both nonhuman and human determinants of ecosystem degradation processes in these contrasted regions, as well as interventions being tested in each.

Implementing agencies, practitioners

Aronson, J., C. Floret, E. Le Floch, C. Ovalle and R. Pontanier (1993) Restoration Ecology 1(3): 168-187.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1526-100X.1993.tb00023.x/abstract

Wildland Shrub and Arid Land Restoration Symposium

The proceedings emphasizes the use of revegetation to rehabilitate arid to semiarid lands for a variety of objectives. For convenience, we have divided these entries into six sections: Overview, Restoration and Revegetation, Ecology, Genetic Integrity, Management Options, and Field Trip. The symposium also included workshops on Large-Scale Rangeland Revegetation and on Revegetation Contracting and Practice.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Roundy, B.A., E.D. McArthur, J.S. Haley and D.K. Mann (eds.) (1994). Proceedings: Wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station.

www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr315.pdf

Landscape Dynamics and Arid Land Restoration

Restoration strategies that initiate autogenic succession—by using rather than by combating natural processes—have great potential for arid ecosystems. Damaged ecological processes must be restored to restoration sites. Landscape dynamics can be directed toward restoration objectives with strategies that: (1) reduce or eliminate the causes of degradation; (2) address soil degradation and initiate soil improving processes; (3) establish vegetation that addresses microsite availability, soil improvement, and nutrient cycling problems; and (4) arrange landscape components to reduce detrimental landscape interactions while increasing synergies among landscape components. Landscape configuration can be designed to: (1) encourage synergies among landscape components; (2) reduce nutrient losses to adjacent landscape components; (3) facilitate natural seed dispersal mechanisms; (4) attract beneficial animals; and (5) reduce detrimental animal activities.

Practitioners, implementing agencies

Whisenant, S.G. (1995) Landscape Dynamics and Arid Land Restoration in B.A. Roundy et al. (eds.) Proceedings of the Wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station.

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr315/int_gtr315_026_034.pdf