1 religious encyclopedia ordeal

819 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Palestine

Palestine 33zploratioa Puna

berias as the capital. In 1517 the Turkish sultan

Selim I. ended the rule of the Egyptian Mamelukes,

and Syria and Palestine were governed from Con­

stantinople under local Turkish pashas. Their rule

was marked by many uprisings, such as the

reign of the Druse Far al Din (1595 1634; see

DBUsEs) and of the Bedouin Zahir al 'Amr (about

1750 75). From 1832 to 1840 Palestine and Syria

were ruled by the Egyptian Mohammad Ali, until

England and Austria restored the land to the Turk­

ish sultan. The present political division of Pales­

tine is as follows. The southern portion of the West

Jordan district, as far north as Sinjil near the Wadi

Dair Ballut, fortes the mutessarifat of Jerusalem;

while the remainder of the west Jordan district,

constituting the Sanjaks of Nabulus and Akko, be­

longs to the vilayet of Beirut (founded in 1888).

The east Jordan district belongs to the vilayet of

Damascus. Its northern portion, the Sanjak of

Hauran, extends to the Nahr al Zar$a, with its

capital at Shaikh Miskin; while the southern portion,

or Sanjak Ma'an, formed in 1894 from the district

of al Salt and the northern part of the vilayet Va, jaz, has for its capital al Karak. The present

area of Palestine, as considered in this article, is

estimated at over 9,000 square miles, with an ap­

proximate population of 559,127. This population

was doubtless larger during the centuries of Roman

control and the early period of Arab dominion,

probably the happiest ages of Palestine. In still

earlier ages, however, it is improbable that the pop­

ulation was much greater than at present. See

CITIES Ix PALESTINE. (H. GUTllE.)

BiBLIOaaAPBY: The most important books and guides on

the bibliography and geography of Palestine are noted in

this work, vol. i., p. xvii. In addition there should be

consulted the lists of literature under the articles in this

work dealing with the separate divisions and regions of

Palestine, such as those noted in the text above, I%.;

and under such articles as DAMAsous; EDoM; JEausA­

Lzac; LZBANON; MoAB, MoABrrms; especially PAias­

mrNE ExPLOaATiON FUND; and K. Baedeker's Palestine

and Syria, Leipsic, 1906. A bibliography of works in

English on the subject is given in J. F. Hurst, Literature

of Theology, pp. 119 130, New York, 1896. More general

lists in such journals as PEE, Quarterly Statements; Revue

bZlique; Revue 3e l'orient latin; and ZDPV; while a

survey of recent literature is given in P. P. Thomson,

Sydematische Bibliographic der Palltetina Mtteratur, Leip.

sac, 1908.

For the story of excavation in Palestine consult: F. J.

Bliss and R. A. Macalister, Excavations in Palestine,

1898 1900, London, 1902; F. J. Bliss, Development of

Palestine Exploration, New York, 1906; H. V. Hilpreeht,

Explorations in Bible Lands during the 18th Century, New

York, 1903; P. H. Vincent, Canaan d'aprls 1'exploration

rbeente, Paris, 1907 (excellent account); Bericht fiber die

1908 bis 1906 . . . cerarptaltden Auegrabunpen, i. Band:

Fundbericht, exstattet von G. Schumacher, ed. Prof. C.

Steuemagel, A. Text, B. Tafeln, Leipsic, 1908; H. Greee­

mann, Die Ausprabunpen in Palutina and das Alts Teda­

ment, Tilbingen, 1908.

The following is a selected list of works dealing with

topography, geography, ate.: E. G. Rey, Voyage dons to

Haouran, Paris, 1860; J. G. Wetastein, Reisebericht 9ber

den Hauran and die Trachonen, Berlin, 1860; idem, Das

batansisehe Giebelpebirpe, Leipsie, 1884; A. Neubauer, La

G6ographie du Talmud, Paris, 1868; V. Gubrin, Descrip­

tion o6ographique, historique, d arehiolopique de la Pales­

tine, 7 vols., Paris, 186980; H. T. P. J. d'A. Due de

Luynes, Voyage d'exploration d la Mer Morte, h P6tra d

our la rime gauche du Jourdain, 3 vole., Paris, 1871 76;

L. Oliphant, The Land of Gilead, New York, 1881; T.

Saunders, 1ntrodudwn to the Survey of Western. Palestine;

its Waterways, Plains and Highlands London 1881; G. Ebers and H. Guthe, Pa)BsNna in Bild and Wort, 2 vole., Stuttgart, 1880 84; A. Henderson, Palestine, its Histor ieal Geography, Edinburgh, 1884; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, 3 vols., London, 1888; O. Ankel, Orundaqlpe der Landaanatur des WoWordantandes, Frank­fort, 1887; G. Schumacher, Across the Jordan, London, 1886; idem, The Jaulan, ib. 1888; C. R. Condor, Survey of Eastern Palestine, London, 1889; idem, Hdh and Moab, ib. 1889; E. Hull, Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine. London, 1889; F. Buhl, aeopraphie des allm Palddina, Freiburg, 1898; D. Zaneechis, La Palestine daujourd'hui, 2 vdls., Paris, 1899 W. Sandsy and P. Water house, Sacred Sites of the Gospels, Oxford, 1903; G. A. Barton, Year's Wanderings in Bible Lands, Philadelphia, 1905; W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, New York, 1905; C. T. Wilson, Peasant Life in the Holy Land, London, 1908; Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudda, ed. M. N. Adler, London, 1907; H. W. Dunning, To day in Palestine, New York, 1907; E. Grant, The Peasantry of Palestine; the Life, Manners and Customs of the Village, Boston, 1907; H. Guthe, Paladins, Bielefeld, 1907; A. C. Inehbold, Under the Syrian Sun; the Lebanon, Baalbek, Oatiles, and Judesa, 2 vole., Pbiladelphia, 1907; P. Thomsen, Loca Sancta. Verxeiehnis der in 1 bis B Jahrhundart Brmdhnten Odachaftm PaUatinas. vol. i., Halls, 1907; idem, Pal"na and seine Kultur in ffinf Jahrtauaenden, Leipeic. 1909; G. HSlsoher, 1 andes and Volkskunde Paldetinae, ib. 1907; G. Cormack, Egypt in Asia. A Plain Account of Pre Biblical Syria and Pales­tine, London, 1908; L. B. Paton, Descriptive Geography q/ Palestine, Chicago, 1908; S. A. Cook, Religion of Ancient Palestine, ib. 1909. Of cyclopedia articles especially worthy of mention is that in Vigouroux, Didionnaim parts xxiv. x:. But none can afford to overlook the constant contributions in the journals noted above, and the Palaadna Jahrbuch, Berlin, 1907 aqq.

On the Dead Sea, consult: F. de Bartley, Voyage au­tour de la Mer Morts, 2 vole., Paris, 1853; U. J. Seetsen. Reisen durch Syrien, ii. 217 384, Berlin, 1854; F. Lynch. Narrative of the U. S. Expedition to the . . . Dead Sea, London, 1849; Official Report (of the same), Baltimore, 1852; O. Frans, Dos todte Meer, Stuttgart, 1887; L. Vignee, Eztrait des rotes dun voyage . . . d la Mar Morte, Paris, 1871; M. Blanekenhorn, in ZDPV, xix (1890), 1 64, xxi. (1898), 65 83; L. Gautier, Autow de la Mer Mork, Geneva, 1901.

For the literature on fauna and Hers, see under Faorr TRLas IN Taz ODD MeorASsioNT; GASDmma, HzBSnw; and the articles on the different animals of the Bible; and especially Lortet and A. Locard, budge soolopiyues cur la fauns du lac de Tiaeriade, Lyons, 1883; H. B. Trlstram, Fauna and Flora of Palsetine, London, 1884; idem, Natural History of the Bible, ib. 1889; G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, Paledina and Sinai, Beirut, 1896; V. Robu, Hulturpftanzen and Haudhiersn, Berlin, 1902; C. Hart, Fauna and Flora of Palestine, London, PEE, 1904; F. Lundgreen, Div BOnuteung der PSansenwelt in der altte4ta­mentlichen Religion, Giessen, 1908.

For the political conditions consult: J. Marquardt, R6mische Staatroerraaitunp, i. 419 sqq., Leipsic, 1881; T. Mommeen, R6misehe Gasehiehte, v. 446 552, Berlin, 1885; P. de Robden, De Palwstina at Arabia provinciis Romaine, Berlin, 1885; G. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems, London, 1890; V. Cuinet, Syria, Liba», d Pales­tine, p4opraphie administrative, 2 vole.. Paris, 1896 1900.

On the climate use: J. Glaieher, Meteorological Obser­vations at Jerusalem, London, 1903; E. Huntington, in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, xl (1908), 513 521.
PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND: A society founded on June 22, 1865, on strictly scientific principles, having as its purpose " To help every one who cares to read the Bible intelligently, to lead those who care for it little to care for it much, to give light to dark places, and to narrow the bounds of controversy." Its aim is the accurate and systematic investigation of the archeology, to­pography, geology and physical geography, man­ners and customs of the Holy Land. The filet im 

Palestine Exploration fund palimpsest

THE NEi SCHAFF HERZOG

pulse toward a scientific examination of the Holy Land is due to Edward Robinson, who still holds first rank among the scientific travelers in Pales­tine. Through the organization of this society, Dean Stanley being one of its founders, the work begun by Robinson the identification of Bible sites was continued by such men as Sir Charles Warren, Sir Charles Wilson, and Colonel Charles Reignier Condor of the Royal Society of Engineers, whose names alone are a guaranty of the accuracy of their work. By them a careful survey of Pales­tine was made and in 1867 the first excavations were begun in and near Jerusalem, showing that in some places the ancient city was buried to the depth of 100 feet in the dibris of its own ruins. Since then valuable work has been done. At the present time important excavations are being made at Geaer (q.v.) under the charge of Robert Alexan­der Stuart Macalister.

Although the society has had limited funds at its disposed, it has done an immense work, and pub­lished the results in books, papers, maps, plans, photographs, and lantern slides for the benefit of all students of the Scriptures. The Raised Map of Palestine constructed from the surveys of the fund by George Armstrong should have special mention.

The society depends upon annual subscriptions and special donations to carry on its work. Those who subscribe not less than half a guinea or 162.50 annually receive the Quarterly Statement published by the funs free. This statement has been pub­lished from the beginning of the survey to the pres­ent time and has been the means of communicating to the world hundreds of discoveries . and obser­vations. In 1897 Rev. Theodore Francis Wright was appointed honorary general secretary and lec­turer for the fund in the United States, and con­tinued to hold these offices until his death in Nov., 1907. Through his efforts greater interest was taken in the work and many new subscribers secured.

MARY A. WRIGHT.

The following is a list of the publications of the fund.

Ancient Cubit. by Sir Charles Warren; XXX. Painted

Tombs of Mariesa, by J. P. Peters; XXXI. Excavations in

Palestine, 1898 1800, by F. J. Bliss; XXXII. Me­

toorolopicai ObaervatW sa at Jerusalem, by James Glais6er:

XXXIII. Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre, by Sir C. W.

Wilson; XXXIV. Table of Christian and Mohammedan

Eras from July 16, (t,R8 1900.

MAPS.

I. Old and New Testament Maps of Palestine in 20 sheets or mounted. II. Modern Map of Palestine in 20 sheets, with modern names only. III. Old and New Testament Map of Palestine in 12 sheets or mounted. IV. Modern Map of Palestine in 12 sheets; modern names. V. The Great Map of Western Palestine; scale one inch to the mile. VI. .The Reduced Map of Western Palestine, showing water basins. VII. Plan of Jerusalem, showing the latest dis­coveries. VIII. Plan of Jerusalem, according to Joaepbua. IX. The Sections of the Country, North and South. East and West. X. The Raised Map of Palestine, 71 feet by 4. XI. The Smaller Raised Map is half the size of the larger. XII. The Photo Relief Map from the Large Raised Map.

Vonmrss.
I. The Survey of Western Palestine, II. Excavations at Jerusalem, by F. J. Bliss and A. C. Diekie; III. Tent Work %n Palestine, by C. R. Condor; IV. Heth and Moab, by C. R. Condor; V. Across the Jordan, by Gottlieb 3chdmacher; VI. The Survey of the Jaulan, by G. Schumacher; VII. Mount Seir, by E. Hull; VIII. Syrian Stone Lore, by C. R. Condor; IX. Thirty Years' Work, by Sir Walter Beeant; X. Altaic Hieroglyphs and Hittite Inscriptions, by C. R. Condor; XI. The Geology of Palestine and Arabia Pdrasz, by E. Hull; Names and Places, with Identifications, by G. Armstrong; XIII. History of Jerusalem, by Sir W. Besant and Prof. E. H. Palmer; XIV. The Bible and Modern D%s­eoverEea by Henry A. Harper; XV. Palestine under the Moa­Eema, by Guy Is Strange; XVI. Lachiah, by W. M. Flinders Petrie; XVII. Introduction to the Survey, by Ttelawney Saunders; XVIII. The City and the Land. Seven Lectures; XIX. The Tell Arnutrna Tablets, including the one found at Laehish; XX. Abila, PeZia, and Northern 'Ajlun, by G. Schumacher; XXI. A Mound of Many Cities (Tell el Hesy excavated), by F. J. Bliss; XRII. Judea Maccaborua,. by C. R. Condor; XXIII. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, by C. R. Condor; XXIV. Index to the Quarterly statements, 1888 1881 inclusive; XXV. The Survey of Eastern Pales­tine, by C. R. Condor; RXVI. The Fauna and Flora of Sinai and Pdra, by H. C. Hart; XXVII. Archeological Re­searches, by C. Clermont Gsnnesu; XXVIII. The Life of .9aladin, ed. C. R. Condor and C. W. Wilson; RXIX. The

PHOTOGRAPHS.

Photos of Inscription from Herod's Temple and Moabite Stone, with translations; also of Jar found at corner of Temple Area. 80 feet below the surface, sad of the Siloam Inscription with translation. Lantern Slides, a list of 200 special slides showing excavations, etc.

CASTS.

Seal of " Haggai, the Son of Shebaniah." Inscribed Table, found at Lachish. Ancient Hebrew Weight, from Samaria. Inscribed Weight or Bead, from Palestine. Seal found on Ophel. The Siloam Inscription. Mount Sinai (large and small). Tablets from Gezer.

PALESTRILYA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA: Founder of the modern style of church music; b. at Palestrina (22 m. e.s.e. of Rome) in 1526; d. at Rome Feb. 2, 1594. He went to Rome at the age o£ fourteen to sixteen and is supposed to have studied under Claude Goudimel. In 1544 51 he was or­ganist of the principal church of his native city, and in the latter year became magiater puertmtm at St. Peter's, Rome. By his first compositions ­three masses dedicated to Julius TIT. he made so favorable an impression that he was appointed musical director of the Julian chapel. He held simi­lar positions at various chapels and churches in Rome until his death; and by his compositions, which are very numerous masses, motets, hymns, and others, of which only one half have been pub­lished he produced a complete revolution in the history of church music. As his masterpiece is generally mentioned, Misaa Paper Marcelli. See SACRED MUSIC.

Brairoaaerar: Selections from the Works of Paleatrina, Transcribed by E. C. Gregory, were published, 4 parts, Oxford, 1903 05. His life was written by G. Baini, Rome, 1828; T. Nisard. Le Mans. 1888; and M. J. A. Lens, Leyden, 1882.

PALEY, WILLIAM: English theologian; b. at Peterborough (37 m. n.e. of Northampton) July, 1743; d: at Lincoln May 25, 1805. His mother was a keen, thrifty woman of much intelligence, and his father was a minor canon at Peterborough and a pedagogue. In 1758 Palsy entered, as sizar, Christ College, Cambridge. He had been a fair scholar at his father's school, specially interested in mathe­matics. After taking his degree in 1783, he became usher at an academy in Greenwich and, in 1766, was elected fellow of Christ College, where he be­came an intimate friend of John Law and lectured

RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Palestine Exploration Fund

Palimpsest

successfully on metaphysics, morals, and the Greek Testament. He offered lectures on Locke, Clark's Attributes, and Butler's Analogy; and in his lec­tures on divinity took the ground maintained in his Moral Philosophy that the Thirty nine Articles were merely articles of peace, inasmuch as they contained about 240 distinct propositions, many of them inconsistent with each other. He had been ordained a priest in 1767, and was appointed to the rectory of Musgrave in Cumberland, which he re­signed in 1776, to take the vicarage of the two parishes, Appleby and Dalston. In 1780 he was installed prebendary at Carlisle, and resigned Appleby on becoming archdeacon in 1782. At the close of 1785, he becam(; chancellor of the diocese and (1789 92) figured as an active opponent of the slave trade. Presented to the vicarage of Alding­ham in 1792, he vacated Dalston for Stanwix in 1793. In recognition of his apologetic writings he was given the prebend of St. Pancras in St: Paul's Cathedral; the subdeanery of Lincoln, in 1795; and the rectory of Bishop Warmouth in 1795; and transferred his residence to Lincoln shortly before his death.

Paley seems to have excelled as a writer of text­books. He is an unrivaled expositor of plain argu­ments but without much originality. His moral system, in which he is said to have anticipated Bentham, is the best statement of the utilita­rianism of the eighteenth century. In theology and philosophy his common sense method, which showed his limitations of intellect, by ignoring com­monly perceived difficulties and by easily accept­ing conclusions, has been discarded. In the former he seems to have followed a liberal construction of orthodox views, sincerely convinced that his doc­trines could be logically proved by rationalistic argument. His alleged plagiarism, even as to the classical illustration of the universe by a watch, must be understood in the light of his purpose in compiling text books. Upon being urged by Law to expand his lectures he published The Moral and Political Philosophy (London, 1786). His most original work was Horte Paulinte; or the Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul evinced, by a Comparison of the Epistles which bear his Name faith the Acts of the Apostles and with one another (London, 1790; subsequent editions are by J. Tate, 1840; T. R. Birks, 1850; J. S. Howson, 1877; Ger­man ed. with annotations, H. P. C. Henke, Helm­stadt, 1797). His prominent apologetic works are, A View of the Evidences of Christianity (London, 1794) and Natural History: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, Collected from the Appearances of Nature (1802): the first a com­pendium of the arguments against the eighteenth­century deists, and the second a clear account of the a posteriori argument from the facts of early Christianity. The Natural Theology, used for many years as a foremost text book classic, has been su­perseded on account of the shifting of ground from the mechanical objective to the immanent subjec­tive theory of the universe. Paley advances the teleological argument from design founded on the unity and adaptability of created things. This argument was based on rationalistic grounds; yet VIIL 21

did not ultimately prove conclusive to rationalists themselves, and has not been able to survive criti­cism. His analogical method has run its course; the idea of a complex, perfected organism dropping suddenly amidst foreign surroundings, as illus­trated by the finding of a watch, was the dogmatic externalism the rebound from which gave birth to the subsequent hypotheses of natural selection and adaptation to environment and the theory of evo­lution as a whole. In the Evidences, Paley pro­ceeds along historical lines to affirm the truth of Christianity by two propositions; namely, that " there is clear proof that the apostles and their successors underwent the greatest hardships rather than give up the Gospel and cease to obey its pre­cepts " and that " other miracles than those of the Gospel are not satisfactorily attested." To these be appends " auxiliary " arguments drawn from the " morality of the Gospel," " originality of Christ's character," and others. The argument is one sided on account of its disregard of the field of Christian consciousness.

Paley published also Reasons for Contentment; addressed to the Laboring Part of the British Public (1793). Individual sermons which may be men­tioned are: Dangers Incidental to the Clerical Char­acter (1795); Assize Sermon at Durham (1795); as well as the compilations Sermons on Several Sub­jects and Sermons and Tracts (1808). The first col­lected edition of the works of William Paley ap­peared in 1805 08; one by A. Chalmers with biog­raphy (5 vols., London, 1819); one by E. Lynam (1825); and one by his son, E. Paley (1825).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The two principal accounts of Paley's life are by his son in his edition of his father's Works, and by G. W. Meadley. London, 1810; the latter is the usual source of the sketches presented in the various editions of Paley's books. Consult further: S. A. Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature, ii. 1486  90, Philadelphia, 1891; DNB, x1iii. 101 107.

PALIMPSEST: A manuscript which has been written over (hence frequently called codex rescrip­tus), the original writing usually having been ex­punged by rubbing, whence the name (Gk. palin, " again," and psaein, " to rub "). The reason for the existence of this class of manuscripts was the scarcity in the Middle Ages of writing materials, and the consequent desire to make use of material al­ready at hand by obliterating existing writing and so making papyrus or parchment available for the then present need. But the porous nature of the parchment or papyrus made it impossible to eradi­cate completely the earlier writing. As a result, it is often feasible to recover the original writing by the use of chemical reagents, among the best of these being hydrosulfureted ammonia. In some cases the agent used was corrosive, and the result was the destruction or further defacement of the manuscript. In some palimpsests the original wri­ting was not erased, but the newer writing was in­serted between the lines of the old or was written across.

This work of effacing the older text and using the manuscript again was often done in the monas­teries, the purpose.being to employ the material for some patristic work or some writing of more pres­ent interest than the original text. While palimp 

Rio ipmwt THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 822

lest manuscripts are not confined to Biblical texts, those of concern in this work are manuscripts which carry in the earlier writing some portion of the text of the Bible. Illustrations of manuscripts of this kind employed as noted above are Codex Ephraem (C), which contains as the earlier or lower writing parts of the Septuagint and also parts of the New Testament, and as the upper or later writing parts of the works of Ephraem Syrus; and Codex Nitrien­sis (R), in which the lower writing is a portion of Luke's Gospel, over which is written in Syriac a comparatively unimportant work by Severus of Antioch.

The most important palimpsests are, for the Greek of the Old Testament: Codex Ephraem (C), at Paris; Petropolitanus (H), at St. Petersburg; a Leipsic set of fragments (K), in the university library of that place; the Dublin codex (O), fragments at Trinity College; some fragments found by Tischen­dorf, known as Z; Codex Cryptoferratensis (r). Besides these there are some fragments of the ver­sion of Aquila, part of these from the Cairo genizah. Of the Greek New Testament the more important palimpsests are: Codex Ephraem (C), ut sup.; Petropolitanus (1), at St. Petersburg; Guelferby­tanus, I. and II. (P„ Qt), at Wolfenbtittel; Nit­riensis (R,), in the British Museum; Neapolitanus (Wb), at Naples; Dublinensis (Z), at Trinity Col­lege, Dublin; Porphyrianus (P9), at St. Petersburg; Codex Zacynthus (7.), with the British and For­eign Bible Society, London; and Patiriensis (3s), in the Vatican Library at Rome.. These New Tes­tament manuscripts are more closely described under BIBLE TExT (vol. ii., pp. 103 106 of this work). Of the Syriac New Testament there are the important Sinaitic Syriac (described in BIBLE VER­siorrs, A, III., 1, 1 3); and some important frag­ments from the genizah at Cairo. Several palimp­sests contain fragments of the early Latin (Itala) version, including: Bernensia fragmenta (t), 'at Berne; Fleury Palimpsest (h) at Paris; Bobiensis (s) at Vienna; Guelferbytanus (gue), at Wolfen­bUttel; and two other fragments, one at Wikrzburg and the other at Munich. One palimpsest of the Vulgate in the Escurial in Spain contains part of Numbers and of Judges; and there is also a frag­ment containing a part of the Acts of the Apostles.