Associate professor of church history princeton theological seminary baker book house

GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY: Presbyterian; b. at Groveville, N. J., Jan. 27, 1825; d. at Princeton, N. J., May 4, 1896. He was educated at Lafayette College (A.B.,1840) and Princeton Theological Semi­nary (1846). He was instructor in Hebrew at Princeton Theological Seminary from 1846 to 1849 and was also stated supply at the Second Presby­terian Church there in 1847. From 1849 to 1851 he was pastor of the Central Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, and from the latter year until his death was a professor in Princeton Theological

53 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA snap

Seminary, first of Biblical and Oriental literature (1851 59) and later of Oriental and Old Testament literature (1859 96). He was chairman 'of the American Old Testament Company of the Anglo­American Bible Revision Committee, and in 1868 declined the proffered presidency of Princeton Col­lege. In Biblical criticism he was one of the leading representatives of the conservative school, and firmly impressed his individuality on the seminary. Besides editing the Song of Solomon for the Ameri­can edition of the Biblical commentary of J. P. Lange (New York, 1870), he wrote A Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New York, 1861); A Hebrew Chrestomathy (1863); The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso (1863); The Argument of the Book of Job Unfolded (1874); Moses and the Prophets (1883); The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses concerning the Pentateuch (1885); Prophets and Prophecy (Prince­ton, 1888); The Old Testament Canon (1889); Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (New York, 1895); The Unity of the Book of Genesis (1895); and the posthumous General Introduction to the Old Testament (2 vole., 1898 99).
GREENE, RICHARD GLEASON: Congrega­tionalist; b. at East Haddam, Conn., June 29, 1829. He was educated at Yale College, but left before graduation on account of the death of his father. He received his theological training at Andover Theological Seminary (1853), becoming immediately acting pastor of the First Congregational Church, Springfield, O., after which he held successive pas­torates at the Eastern Congregational Church, New York City (1854 56), Plymouth Congregational Church, Adrian, Mich. (1856 57), East Cambridge, Mass. (1858 60), First Congregational Church, Brighton, Mass. (1860 62), Bedford Congregational Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1862 65), Orange Valley Congregational Church, Orange, N..J. (1865 66), North Church, Springfield, Mass. (1866 74), and Trinity Church, East Orange, N. J. (1875 89). He was editor in chief of the Library of Universal Knowl­edge (15 vols., New York, 1882); the first edition of the International Encyclopa;dia (16 vols.,1887); and the Columbian Cyclopedia (32 vole., 1890). In theology he is an Evangelical, placing more stress on the fellowship of faith in Christ than on any similar­ity either of doctrinal belief or of church government. In addition to numerous reviews he has written Glimpses of the Coming (New York, 1877).

GREENE, WILLIAM BRENTON, JR.: Presby­terian; b. at Providence, R. I., Aug. 16, 1854. He was educated at the College of New Jersey (A.B., 1876) and Princeton Theological Seminary (1880). He then held successive pastorates at the First Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, 1880 83, and at the Tenth Presbyterian Church in the same city, 1883 93. In the latter year he was appointed pro­fessor of apologetics and Christian ethics in Prince­ton Theological Seminary, a position which he still holds. In theology he is a strict conservative, believing firmly in the supernatural character of Christianity and the infallibility of the Bible. He has written Christian Doctrine (Philadelphia, 1905).

GREENFIELD, WILLIAM: Linguist and Bib­lical scholar; b. in London Apr. 1, 1799; d. there Nov. 5, 1831. He studied under two maternal uncles, business men in London, and afterward received instruction in Hebrew from a Jew in the employ of a bookbinder to whom Greenfield had been apprenticed in 1812. In 1824 he gave up business to devote himself to languages and Biblical criticism, and in 1830 he became editor of foreign versions to the British and Foreign Bible Society. During the year and a half that he was in the employ of the Society he wrote on more than twenty lan­guages. His principal publications were: The Comprehensive Bible . . . with . . . a General In­troduction . . . Notes, etc. (London, 1827); The Poly­micrian Greek Lexicon to the New Testament (1829; new revised ed., 1885); A Defense of the Serampore Mahratta Version of the New Testament (1830); Novi Testamenti Grteci Tapeiov . . . ex opera E. Schmidii (1830); The New Testament, Greek and Hebrew (1831); and The Pillar of Divine Truth Im. moveably Fixed on the Foundation of the Apostles and the Prophets (1831), an abridgment from the Cony prehensive Bible.

BISLmonAPHr: DNB, x3di. 76 77.

GREENHILL, WILLIAM: English nonconform­ist; b. probably in Oxfordshire 1591; d. in London Sept. 27, 1671. He studied at Magdalen College, Oxford (B.A., 1609; M.A., 1612) and held the Mag­dalen College living of New Shoreham, Sussex, from 1615 to 1633. After officiating for a time in Nor­wich he removed to London and became afternoon preacher at Stepney. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly and one of the so called "dissenting brethren." In 1644 he became the first pastor of the Congregational church at Stepney, in 1649 chaplain to the children of Charles I., in 1654 one of the commissioners for approbation of public preachers, and about the same time vicar of St. Dunstan's in the East. He lost this post at the Restoration in 1660, but retained his independent pastorate at Stepney till his death. His principal works are: The Axe at the Root (London, 1643), a ser­mon preached before the House of Commons Apr. 16, 1643; An Exposition, of the Prophet Ezekiel (5 vole., 1645 62; ed. J. Sherman,1839), one of the most cele­brated Puritan commentaries, of which the first vol­ume was dedicated to Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I.; Sermons of Christ, His Discovery of Himself (1656); and The Sound Hearted Christian (1670).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Kennedy, in Evangelical Magaxins and Missionary Chronicle, July, 1862; D. Lyson, Environs of London, vols. i., iii., 4 vole., London, 1792 96; A. g Wood, Athena: Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, iii. 1145, 4 vole., London, 1813 20; 8. Palmer, Nonconformist's Memorial, ii. 468, 2 vole., London, 1775 78, 3 vole., 1802 03.

GREENLAND, MISSIONS IN. See EGICIDE, HANS.

GREENUP, ALBERT WILLIAM: Church of England; b. at London June 5, 1866. He was edu­cated at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1890; M.A., 1893). He has been chaplain to the earl of Cadogan since 1893, and was rector of Alburgh, Norfolk, from 1897 to 1899, when he was appointed principal of the London College of Divinity, St. John's Hall, Highbury, becoming also Macneil pro 

Greenwood Gregory I.

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

fessor of Biblical exegesis in the following year. He was public examiner at the University of Cam­bridge in 1898 99, and has been prodean of the faculty of theology in the University of London and a member of the board of theological studies since 1901, as well as examiner in Hebrew, Greek Testament, and Aramaic since 1903 and in eccle­siastical history since 1905. In theology he belongs to the Evangelical school of the Church of England. He has written Short Commentary on Lamentations (Hertford, 1893); Marginal References to the Re­vised Version (Oxford, 1898); Forms of Absolution (London, 1901); and Commentary on Micah (1903), in addition to translating the Targum on Lamenta­tions (Sheffield, 1893) and editing the commentary of Tobiah hen Eliezer on the same book (Hertford, 1896).

GREENWOOD, JOHN: English Separatist; he studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (B.A., 1581), and took orders in the Church of Eng­land, but in 1586 was arrested for holding a private conventicle in London. He was released, again arrested, and held in prison for more than four years. In 1592, with Francis Johnson (q.v.), he organized the first society of the Separatists in London and became its "teacher." He was arrested Dec., 1592, tried and condemned with his friend, Henry Barrow (q.v.), for publishing seditious books, and the two were hanged at Tyburn Apr. 6, 1593. He wrote several works, most of them in collaboration with Barrow.

BIBLIOGRAPa:: H. M. Dexter, Conprrapationaliam of the Last Three Hundred Years, New York, 1880; W. Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism, p. 30, n. 1, New York, 1893; DNB, xljii. 84 85.

GREER, DAVID HUMMELL: Protestant Epis­copal bishop of New York; b. at Wheeling, W. Va., Mar. 20, 1844. He was educated at Washing­ton College, Pa. (A.B., 1862), and the Gambier Theological Seminary, Gambier, O. (1866). He was rector of Grace Church, Providence, R. I., 1871 88, and of St. Bartholomew's, New York City, 1888­1904. In 1904 he was consecrated bishop coadjutor of New York, becoming bishop in 1908. He has written The Historic Christ (New York, 1890); From Things to God (1893); The Preacher and his Place (1895); and Visions (1898).
GREGG, DAVID: Presbyterian; b. at Pittsburg, Pa., Mar. 25, 1846. He was educated at Washing­ton and Jefferson College (A.B., 1865) and the Theo­logical Seminary at Alleghany, Pa. (1868), after which he held pastorates at the Third Reformed Presbyterian Church, New York City (1870 87), Park Street Congregational Church, Boston (1887­1890), and Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church, Brooklyn (1890 1904). Since 1904 he has been president of Western Theological Seminary, Alle­ghany, Pa. He has written: From Solomon to the Captivity (New York, 1890); Studies in John (1891); Our Best Moods (1893); The Heaven safe (1895); The Testimony of the Law to the Book (1895); Makers of the American Republic (1896); Ideal Young Men and Women (1897); Facts that call for Faith (1898); Things of Northfield and other Things (1899); New Epistles from Old Lands (1899); The Didum of

Reason on Man's Immortality (1902); Individual Prayer as a Working Force (Chicago, 1903); and Be­tween the Testaments (1907).

GREGOIRE, grli"gwar', HENRI: French eccle 

siastic; b. at Veho (a village just e. of Lunt;ville) Dec. 4, 1750; d. at Auteuil, Paris, Dec. 28, 1831. He was brought up in the Jesuit college at Nancy, taught for a while in the Jesuit school at Pont su­Moueson, and was then vicar and finally priest at Emberm6nil (3 m. n. of Veho) until 1789 or 1791. The clergy of the district of Nancy sent him to the Assembly of 1789, and until 1814, with trifling in­terruptions, he was a member of various legislative bodies, being at the same time bishop of Blois from 1791 until 1801. After 1814 be busied himself with learned researches.

As a priest he was the first to take the oath de­manded by the Constituent Assembly (Dec. 27, 1790). Out of two bishoprics to which he was elected he chose Loire et Cher or Blois and served faithfully there for ten years, but, on the signing of the Concordat (q.v.) in 1801, was forced by the Ultramontanes to leave. Nevertheless, in spite of all attacks he continued to wear his bishop's robe in the Convention and on the street, and read mass at home daily.

As a statesman he was at times secretary or president of the assemblies, or chairman of impor­tant committees. The Legislative Body which had made him its president chose him senator three times, thus forcing Napoleon to confirm him. In 1819 France was roused by his election as repre­sentative of the department of Iei're, but the Cham­ber refused to let him take his seat.

As a philanthropist he stood ahead of his day. His book on the Jews took a prize in 1788, and to­day the Jews hold his name in honor. He com­bated slavery with vigor. In the Convention he did much for'commerce and trade, and for schools and libraries. His report on bibliography was often reprinted (at late as 1873). The French Institute was his creation.

As a writer he treated of the Jews (Paris, 1789), Port Royal (1801), theophilanthropy (1806), negro literature (1808), history of religious sects (2 vole., 1814; 8 vo1s.,1828), Gallican liberties (1818), Christi­anity and women (1821), history of confessors of emperors (1824), marriage of priests in Franca (1828), Mhmmrea (1837). Many of his books were translated into foreign languages.

The archbishop of Paris refused him extreme unction, because Gr6goire refused to retract his oath of Dec. 27, 1790; but Abby Guillon served him as confessor and gave him the last rites.

CA$PAR RE14 GREGORY.

BIRLIOORAPH7: His own MLriiOiTe.1, ed. H. Carnat with 8

biographical notice, appeared in 2 vole., Paris, 1839. Consult: G. Kroger, Heinrich GrE9oire, Biaclwf van Blois, Leipaic, 1838; P. Bdhringer, OrADoire, sin Lebenabild, Basel, 1878; A. Debidour, L'Abbli Ciropoire, Nantes, 1881; H. Cannot, ?Studs our :'abbg QrEpoire, Pari0. 1882: Liah­tenberger, ESR, v. 728 731; W. H. Jervis, The l7alliaan Church and the Revolution, passim, London, 1882 (well worth consulting).

GREGORIAN CHANT. See Music. SACRED, IL, 1, § 2.

65 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Greenwood

Gregory I.

GREGORY: The name of sixteen popes.

Gregory I., the Great: Pope Sept. 3, 590 Mar. 11, 604. He was born in Rome about 540. His father, Gordianus, was an ecclesiastical fio­narius (q.v.). After her husband's Life Before death his mother devoted herself to his Conse  the cloistral life. Brought up "as a cration as saint in the midst of saints," Gregory

Pope. was thoroughly instructed in grammar

and rhetoric, and read the Latin Fa­

thers zealously, especially Augustine, Jerome, and

Ambrose. He so distinguished himself, moreover,

in his legal studies that Emperor Justin II. ad­

vanced him to the rank of prefect of the city (be­

fore 573). Nevertheless, his religious devotion ul­

timately led him to renounce the life of the world;

and after his father's death he devoted his wealth to

good works. He built six cloisters in Sicily and

endowed them with lauded estates, as well as a

seventh in his own house at Rome. The latter­

St. Andrew's  he himself entered about 575. It is

uncertain under what rule he lived as monk; but he

extolled the Benedictine rule in his Dlalogua (ii.

26) and sooner or later he introduced it into the

cloisters of his foundation. To the end of his life

Gregory evinced a special predilection for monas­

ticism, desiring to promote the purely contempla­

tive life as the most perfect, and to secure it from

perturbations.

Pope Benedict I. constrained Gregory to return to the world, and ordained him one of the seven Roman deacons (577). When Benedict's succes­sor, Pelagius IL, had been consecrated before im­perial confirmation of his election had been received, he sent Gregory as his delegate to Constantinople in 579, to justify this irregular procedure, and at the same time to entreat aid against the Lombards, then menacing Rome. The first object succeeded, but not the second. It is probable that Gregory was allowed to return to Rome and his cloister in 585. In 590 he was unanimously elected pope by senate, clergy, and people. He hesitated to accept this high dignity, owing not only to his predilection for the contemplative life, but also to his conviction that the office should be conferred only on one who fled from it in humility; but he was consecrated on Sept. 3.

His first care was the security of Rome against the Lombards. Efforts to this end, however, were obstructed by the factional struggle in Ravenna, the imperial capital of Italy, for the independence of its Church from Rome, which cre 

Struggle ated difficulties for the Roman bishop

Against the in the political sphere and sought to

Lombards. influence the imperial exarch against

him (see RAVENNA). In 591 Gregory

despatched soldiers to support the imperial com­

mander against the Lombard duke, Ariulf of Spo­

leto; and likewise sent a reenforcement to the im­

periled border post of Nepi, and a tribune to Naples,

so that that city was able to hold out. Neverthe­

less the exarch sent no help and refused his consent

to a peace. Gregory, therefore, of his own accord

concluded peace with Ariulf in 592. Next, how­

ever, the Lombard King Agilulf moved against

Rome, to chastise the pope as his most zealous an 

tagonist. He invested the city in June. The stress of famine that shortly set in compelled Gregory to send a liberal ransom and bind himself to an an­nual tribute. He then again zealously endeavored to bring about a general peace between the Lom­bards and the imperial party. But the emperor, Mauritius, sided with his exarch, whereupon, Greg­ory's efforts for peace remaining fruitless, the Spo­letans and Beneventans again broke forth in 596, devastating Campania and the southwest of the peninsula. With a view to mitigate the misery thus occasioned, Gregory sent funds for the ransom of the captives, and even authorized the bishop of Naples to apply the sacred utentils to this object. He then sought to defend Corsica and Sardinia from the threatening danger. Finally, in the spring of 599, it was practicable to conclude peace.

The means for so sweeping a political activity were secured to the pope by the patrivwnium Petri  the rich possessions of the Roman Church in all Italy, Dalmatia, Gaul, and North Africa. Gregory now strove to consolidate this property into an or­ganized whole, and to enhance its productiveness.

To this end, he sought to make prac­Administra  tical application of the principle that

tion of the Church must not farm out her es­Church tates, but administer them herself, as

Property. far as possible through the clergy ex­Benevolent clusively. At the same time, he ex 

Activity. ercised a careful personal supervision

over these officials, requiring of them the most scrupulous accountability in receipts and expenditures, and supplying them with minute in­structions as to the best management of the estates. The revenues which accrued were applied not only to strictly ecclesiastical purposes; but also toward provision for the sick, the infirm,.aad orphans; to the maintenance of almshouses and pilgrims' hos­telries; to the support of other benevolent institu­tions at home and abroad; to the ransoming of cap­tives and slaves; toward fighting or conciliating the Lombards. This political and social activity which the conditions of the time forced Gregory to undertake on so large a scale obtained for him in the sight of all Italy, which looked in vain for pro­tection and help from the emperor, so high a regard that ~.i Central Italy he was honored like a sovereign prince. In a word, the temporal sovereignty of the papacy then had its beginning (see PAPAL STATES).

Gregory entertained a noble conception of his position as Roman bishop, yet, while he regarded every office in the Church as a service, in another

light Peter must have been charged Gregory's  and likewise his successors with Conception the duty of strengthening his breth­of the Pa  ren; and every bishop should be will 

pacy. ing freely to receive service from

Relations Peter's successor. It was Gregory's

with Con  indefatigable endeavor gradually to stantinople. gain ground for this theory, though

in every concrete instance he brought only so much pressure to bear as would secure the recognition of his tenets. His views were destined to encounter opposition, especially in Constantinople. When the patriarch at that see, Johannes IV.,

CtTegory I.

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

Jejunator (q.v.), kept assuming the title "Ecu­menical," Gregory made earnest remonatrancea to him, and forbade his envoy to attend the patri­arch's masa so long as he retained that title. The emperor addressing Gregory a' written admonition to keep the peace, he answered both emperor and patriarch in the sharpest terms. Not even the bishop of Rome, he said, though to him was "com­mittedthe primacy and the care of the entire Church," called himself "Universal. Bishop"; and last of all might the bishop of Constantinople so style himself, since it was notorious that many bishops of that Church had fallen into the abyss of erroneous doctrine. The dispute continued under the new patriarch, Cyriacue (see CYRIACUB, 2). Finally, Gregory believed himself permitted to hope for victory in this contest, when (Nov., 602) the patriarch's defender, Emperor Mauritius, was de­throned and executed by Phocae. In confidence of the new emperor's assistance, he again admonished the patriarch "to put far from the Church the scandal of that impious and proud title." His will was attained after his death, in that Phocas so­knowledged Rome as "head of all the churches."

Gregory had likewise to contend with John, the archbishop of Ravenna, who had been loyally de­voted to him at the outset. When the pope, how­ever, forbade him to wear the pallium

Relations except during mass, he would not com 

with Ra  ply. After his death (595), Gregory

venna and rejecter the candidates proposed in Other Bish  Ravenna, and nominated his friend,

oprics. the Roman presbyter Marinianus, yet

even he soon refused to acknowledge

the bishop of Rome as the decisive tribunal in the

affairs of distant churches. Gregory encountered

similar opposition in Illyria and Aquileia. In

Africa, the Church still suffered grievously from the

1)Onatlat schism (see DGNATIBM). Gregory deemed

it his official duty to exhort the bishops as well as

the exarch and the emperor to combat this heresy,

and to express his censure if this were not done

in the way by him judged proper. When, how­

ever, he desired that in future the primate of each

ecclesiastical province should no longer be ap­

pointed. according to seniority, but by election, the

bishops declined to approve this infringement of

their ancient con suetudines; and the pope was

obliged to yield. In other instances he regarded

the independent spirit of the North African Church;

but, though he had the gratification of appeals

from this church to Rome, he never required the

case to be decided by himself at Rome, but stopped

short with allowing the matter to be settled on the

spot. He was able to commit the Spanish Church

unreservedly to the care of his friend, Bishop Lea,n­

der of Seville.

Peculiarly difficult was Gregory's position in re­spect to the Frankish Church, which was already accustomed to independence, while The Gregory was so entirely unprovided

Frankish with practical means to confront the

Church. situation aggressively that here he

must show forth, in special measure,

a wise "humility in service." No vicar of the

pope had held office in Gaul from 586 onward, until

Bishop Virgilius of Arles, in harmony with King Childebert, besought Gregory, in 595, to appoint him his vicar, and to confer the pallium on him. Gregory forthwith made efforts to abolish simony and the promotion of laymen to bishoprics. He also encouraged the holding of synods under the presidency of his vicar, along with obedience to their enactments, reserving for the Apostolic See the decision of disputes in matters of faith, and other difficult questions. When nothing resulted from all these beginnings, Gregory attempted to gain influence over this "extra Roman" Church through a special legate, Candidus, as well as through frequent written communications to the princes and a number of the Frankish bishops. The task was aggravated because he was obliged to com­mend himself and his wishes to the favor of Brun­hilda; but infamous as her deeds were in all else, at least she befriended the Church, so that Greg­ory deemed it his duty to ignore the darker sides of her life, and by laudatory recognition of what she did for the Church to render her disposed to­ward still further fulfilment of his wishes. This policy was not simply diplomacy. Gregory was en­tirely persuaded that what the good Brunhilda had wrought for the Church was in itself well pleasing to God, meritorious, and available to cancel sin. However, the irregular appointment of bishops was not abated, nor did the synod, from which Gregory hoped for important reforms, come to pass in his lifetime. Nevertheless his endeavors with reference to the Frankish Church are to be reckoned among the fruitful seeds which at last sprang up and grew.

Of the very greatest importance for the future was Gregory's missionary activity, of which the conversion of the Anglo Saxons (see ANGLO SAXONS, CONVERSION OF THE ; AUGUSTINE, SAINT, OF CANTERBURY) was the most conspicuous result.

He sought also to win the Jews for

Gregory's Christendom, forbidding herein all Missionary manner of coercive procedure, but

Activity. holding it allowable to promote their

conversion by pecuniary rewards. When he learned that in Sardinia there were still many heathen, he commanded the bishop to resort to flogging and imprisonment. Here the Church possessed power, and so needed not to exercise the patience that was still requisite in England.

Among the writings of Gregory, his Expoaitio in beatum Job seu moralium libri XXXV. was utilized and highly esteemed as a compendium of ethics

during all the Middle Ages. He was

Writings. moved to compose his second work,

ReguLa pastorales, by the reproaches of Archbishop John of Ravenna for his attempt to avoid by flight his elevation to the papal throne. In the first part he shows how the highest govern­ment is to be attained; in the second, how a pastor should live; in the third, how he should teach; in the fourth, that good conduct of office must not be allowed to lead one astray through pride. This book was early so renowned that in 602 the Em­peror Mauritius had it translated into Greek, while Alfred the Great (q.v.) rendered it into Anglo­Saxon. At several synods (for instance, those of

8"! RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Gregory I.

813 at Mainz and Reims) it was read aloud to the priests for a standard of conduct. According to Hincmar of Reims, a priest at his consecration had to hold it in his hand and swear that he would dis­charge his office accordingly. In the form of con­versations with his friend Peter, Gregory composed in 593 594, his Lxbri IV. dialogorum de vita et miratr ulis patrum Italicorum et de ceternitate animtarum. The first and third books tell wondrous stories of various persons, to which the third appends all sorts of instructive digressions; the second book relates the life of Benedict; the fourth, wonderful apparitions intended to prove the existence of the soul after death. This work was much in vogue in the Middle Ages, and was rendered into Greek by Pope Zacharias (d. 752), and into Anglo Saxon under Alfred's direption. Gregory cpnstantly em­phasized his conviction that one of the pastor's main duties is preaching, and industriously prao­tised it himself, so long as his health permitted. Twenty two homilies by him on Ezek. i. 1 iv. 3 and xl. are preserved as well as forty homilies on passages from the Gospels. Eight hundred and fifty three of Gregory's letters are extant and have great value for the history of the time. Lastly he composed hymns. Those which are universally at­tributed to him show resemblance in both substance and form to the hymns of Ambrose

In the liturgical sphere, Gregory was certainly active, but the evidence does not altogether con 

firm the traditional view that "he es­Reform of tablished a strict order in the ordo the Liturgy. Romanus for the solemn observance of mass, as performed in Rome on processional days, transcribing from the Psalms into the liber antiphonarius the portions to be sung during the introit, gradual, hallelujah, tract, offer­tory, and communion, and eliminating from the sacramentary of Gelasius whatever he deemed un­necessary; but adding new matter, and thus be­coming the author of the sacramentary still known by his name, besides perhaps compiling the ltber responsalis, containing the responsories usual in the mass, and the hymns of the canonical book of hours." Nor is it altogether certain whether that style of liturgical chant which has become custom­ary in the Roman Catholic Church is, rightly termed "Gregorian" after Gregory I. as its originator (see MUSIC, SACRED, Il., 1, § 2). Against such an epoch­making activity on Gregory's part in the musical sphere, it is especially significant that no indica­tions of it appear, either in his versatile correspond­ence, or in any other sources in all the seventh century; although it is certain that he founded a
* The Benedictine edition of his works attributes eight hymns to him, viz. (1) Primo dierum omnium, several Eng. transls., e.g., J. M. Neale, " On this the day that saw the earth"; D. T. Morgan, " welcomel Thou chiefest of all days"; (2) Nocte surgentea tigilemus omnea, by Cardinal Newman, " Let us arise and watch by night"; (3) Ecce jam noctis tenuatur umbra, by Cardinal Newman, " Paler have grown the shades of night"; (4) Clarum decua fejunii, by R. F. Littledale, " The shining glory of the fast"; (5) Audi, benigne conditor, by J. M. Neale, " O Maker of the world, give ear"; (6) Rex Chriate, factor omnium, by Ray Palmer, " O Christ! our King"; (7) Lucis creator optime, by Cardinal Newman, " Father of lights, by whom each day"; and (8) Mapno salutia gaudio. Cf. Julian, Hymnology, passim.

chorister school in Rome to improve the church singing.

Gregory's importance in the history of dogmatics is great. During the Middle Ages no Christian writer of the past was studied so much as he. Though he furnished no original thoughts, this very

defect made his writings especially Gregory's useful for an era wherein the only valid

Theology. rule was to transfer what was old into

the new ecclesiastical forms which grew out of national readjustments. Furthermore, he was commended by the fact that he appeared to lean entirely upon the great Augustine, and was even able to replace the latter, reproducing his thoughts in such a form that they were no longer too difficult for the uneducated multitudes. The impression is not infrequently given that Gregory may have possessed more Christianity than he offered to others; the fact is that the same regard for the attainable as is traceable in all his pol­icies caused him, as a teacher, to say only so much, and that only in such guise, as, in his opinion, could find acceptance and exert practical influence amid the ecclesiastical conditions then prevalent. As thus viewed, Gregory's contribution may be termed an abridged and materialized Augustinian­ism. Stiff necks are to bend under the authority of Holy Scripture and Holy Church. The former is dictated by the Holy Ghost; outside the latter one can "absolutely not be saved." That is to say, none but the officiating "regents" in this Church administer the necessary "boons" to the attainment of salvation. True, Christ "appeased by his death the judge's wrath"; but his sacrifice undergoes its effectual repetition in the sacrifice of the mass provided by the Church. Consequently the Church, in the sacrifice of the mass, is possessed of a means for influencing God. Again, this "good work" dispensed by the Church also profits the dead in Purgatory, while it  _;ometimes helps even the living in earthly tribulation. In like manner, Gregory sharply defined and incorporated into the church doctrinal plan certain theories which had long been in vogue in a supplementary way, 'out which Augustine had admitted to be only "per­haps" true, or "not incredible"; and he likewise keenly appreciated the value of the marvelous in impressing a people still half pagan. His doctrine of sin and grace is so far Augustinian that he teaches the damnation of children dying without baptism, and seems to assume the irresistibility ~f grace (Moralia, IX., ix. 13); even though he speaks of a "monstrous great weakness" in fallen man, of our "voluntary accord with the grace which frees us," and of the cooperation of man's will in good works. In this light "it can be said of us that we free ourselves"; and therefore "the good that we do is both God's and our own doing," and becomes our "merit." In a similar vein he speaks of the "hidden decree of predestination"; but "the de­termined number of the elect," rests on "the fore­knowledge of God." Gregory indeed appears to hold the necessity of an inward transformation of man, in that according to him the voice of the Spirit wbich speaks in man by process of the Word in­spires love toward the invisible Creator, and, con