Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

approximately 4 km2 were randomly selected for searching at a frequency of 20%

in a regular grid determined by five broad land types. The results provide

strong support for the spatiotemporal patterns of farming settlement predicted

for Transkei on the basis of findings to the north. Farming settlement is shown

probably to have been more or less continuous since about 1 400 BP, in the

deeply entrenched valleys below 1 000m a.s.l. in the north of Transkei and below

300m a.s.l. in the south. In these situations trees and shrubs continue to be

abundant today. Expansion out of this relatively small, wooded area into

grassland probably commenced more than a thousand years later. That extensive

forest clearance in large areas, settled very recently, could be the result of

such a spatiotemporal distribution is thought to be improbable. Thus if the

'secondary' grassland of Transkei is not derived, then 'secondary' as well as

'climax' grasslands are probably edaphic under the present-day climate. The

distribution of edaphically controlled vegetation in Transkei about 2 000 BP,

i.e. prior to any possible disturbance by farming or pastoralism, would probably

have been closely similar to the present-day distribution of plant formations.

Farming settlement distribution was apparently a consequence, not a cause, of

the present distribution pattern of vegetation; which already existed when

farmers arrived in Transkei.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : TRANSKEI; GRASSLAND; FOREST; CLIMATE; ARCHAEOLOGY; METHODOLOGIES;

VEGETATION CHANGE

Ref ID : 598

916. Feely, J.M. The early farmers of Transkei, southern Africa before A.D.

1870. Cambridge monographs in African archaeology No.24. B.A.R. International

Series.Anonymous Anonymous Oxford:1-142, 1987. 0-86054-486-7.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ARCHAEOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; TRANSKEI;

VEGETATION CHANGE; BUSH ENCROACHMENT; GRASSLAND; DEFORESTATION; LAND USE;

FOREST; FIRE; CULTIVATION

Notes : This publication is a slightly reworked version of Jim Feely's Master of

Arts thesis entitled: "The distribution of Iron Age farming settlement in

Transkei: 470-1870". An incomplete version of this is filed under Feely. His

summary and conclusions are as follows: "A variety of evidence indicates that a

major fraction, if not all, of southern African grassland at all altitudes may

have been distributed much as this plant formation is presently mapped

throughout the Holocene or probably longer. Consequently the 'island'

distribution of Afromontane and some Tongaland-Pondoland forest 'relics' within

the grassland biome, would also be as old a phenomenon. If these forests

'relics' were once more continuously distributed, this distribution probably

occurred at some period earlier than the Holocene (prior to 10 000 BP), and

possibly much earlier. The distribution of plant formations dominated either by

grasses or by trees and shrubs throughout the Holocene, appears to have been

edaphically controlled. In addition, edaphic control may have been enhanced by

regularly recurring episodes of fire plus frost (the latter mainly above c.300m

a.s.l. at present). Thus, the crucial human influence in edaphic grassland for

tens of thousands of years, was probably seasonal burning of a readily

inflammable vegetation, rather than forest clearance. For the last one or two

millenia intermittent, seasonal or continuous pastoralism with domestic

livestock, has probably been an added factor in grassland and wooded grassland

ecology in Transkei. Conversely, Tongaland-Pondoland forest, scrub forest,

bushland, thicket and wooded grassland in entrenched valleys below c.1 000m

a.s.l., may today comprise a complex, spatiotemporal kaleidoscope of seral

communities, consequent upon farming land use (especially field clearance) for

one to one-and-a-half thousand years. In Transkei this proposal implies, for

example, that much of the landscape of the 'Wild Coast' and its immediate

hinterland, from the Egoso fault scarp in the north to the Nqabara river

drainage basin in the south, has been greatly modified by man. To north and

south of this part of the 'Wild Coast', edaphic grassland apparently stretches

down to most of the seashore. Thus pastoralism and grass burning have probably

both been more important human influences, than has cultivation and field

clearance, in much of the northern and southern sectors of the 'Wild Coast'.".

Ref ID : 2011

917. Fenn, J.A. Control of hakea in the Western Cape. Neser, S. and Cairns,

A.L.P. Cape Town:A.A. Balkema. :167-173, 1980.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : WESTERN CAPE

Notes : Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Third National Weeds

Conference of South Africa.

Ref ID : 1234

918. Festenstein, M. and Pickard-Cambridge, C. Land and Race: South Africas

group areas and land acts.South African Institute of Race Realations. , 1987.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LEGISLATION; COMMUNAL AREA; LAND TENURE; LAND REFORM; POLICY;

POLITICAL ASPECTS; EROSION

Notes : The authors conclude that the erosion of residential segregation in

practice has led to changes in official attitudes to this policy. The

government no longer seeks to re-order the urban landscape to fit a

segregationist vision but now seeks to contain the changes which are already

occurring by limiting the effects of spontaneous desegretation. One effect of

this is that the operation of the Group Areas Act is becoming increasingly

reliant on executive discretion rather than the official machinery provided by

the law. The Act has always allowed considerable scope for executive decision,

and this fact has been used increaseingly to turn a blind eye to the emergence

of 'grey areas' in many high-density residential suburbs. The authorities also

seem to have ignored contraventions in certain 'unopened' white business

districts. Group areas proclamations are now no longer the result of a coherent

central government plan but a response to requests by interest groups such as

the two black own affairs administrations, who require new land for housing.

For the first time an important provision in the Act, the issuing of permits, is

being handled by second-tier, provincial, government. While this implies only a

limited devolution of power, it has led some observers to predict a further

devolution to local authorities, who would be allowed to exercise a degree of

'local option'. The government's gradual retreat from rigid enforcement of the

Act is also illustrated by the series of official enquiries seeking a formula

for recognising spontaneous desegregation. While none has thus far entertained

the idea of abolishing segregation entirely, all have indicated a growing lack

of official confidence in the Act's ability to continue enforcing it. The

retreat remains limited. Instruments of official policy such as guide plans and

the local goverment demarcation board are still operating under the assumption

that the present broad policy of residential segregarion will remain essentially

unchaged. Although they do not provide for the demarcation of group areas, they

determine future regional zoning an political arrangements within segregationist

assumptions. As a result, assumptions regarding future developoment are not

necessarily based on realities, such as the need to cater for the rapid influx

of blacks into metropolitan areas to meet the demand for housing closer to city

centres. The role of guide plans in particular will have to be re-examined if

separate group areas are not to be entrenched in the future. While the erosion

of residential segregation, both in practice and as an element of official

policy, is clearly gathering pace, formidable obstacles must still be eliminated

before unrestricted access to residential and trading land for all races becomes

a reality.

Ref ID : 813

919. Fey, M.V. and Guy, S.A. The capacity of soils in the Vaal Dam catchment to

retain sulphate from atmospheric pollution.Anonymous Pretoria:Water Research

Commission. 414/1/93, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL CONSERVATION; POLLUTION; WATER QUALITY

Ref ID : 609

920. Fick, J.C. The abuse of the soil, veld and water resources of South Africa,

Cape Town:South African Interests Group, 1944.-46.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; HYDROLOGY; VELD CONDITION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; LAND

DEGRADATION

Ref ID : 761

921. Fincham, R.J. and Auerbach, R.M.B. How long can the soil sustain us?

Earthyear 90:33-37, 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL CONSERVATION; SOIL EROSION; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; SOUTHERN

AFRICA

Notes : Modern agricultural science has brought about dramatic increases in

productivity, yet the state of agriculture in southern Africa is far from

satisfactory. The authors set out some of the facts and suggest pertinent

answers.

Ref ID : 762

922. Fincham, R.J. and Auerbach, R.M.B. The role of agriculture in sustainable

development. NU Focus On Food 2(1):29-35, 1991.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT;

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Notes : The intention in this article is to focus on production within the

context of sustainable development. To do so requires some understanding of the

changing philosophies of development and of the use of the environment as they

have materialised over the past 50 or so years. In conclusion, the authors

offer principles, borrowed from Thijs da la Court, which must guide the kind of

sustainable development and agricultural food production initiatives which they

favour. In brief, they include: the principle of the cultural and social

integrity of development; the ecological principle; the solidarity principle;

the emancipation principle; the non-violence principle; and the principle of

error friendliness.

Ref ID : 1224

923. Fischer, A. Land tenure in Mhala: official wisdom 'locked up' in tradition

and people 'locked up' in development. Development Southern Africa 4(3):427-434,

1987.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND TENURE

Ref ID : 135

924. Fischer, A. The history, ideology, commercial and communal use of natural

resources in Mhala communities - a social perspective. 1996.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : NORTHERN PROVINCE; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; COMMUNAL AREA;

ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; LAND USE; SOUTHERN AFRICA; GAZANKULU

Notes : A study commissioned by the Development Bank of Southern Africa. This

is a case study of the structuring of access to and the use of natural resources

in the Mhala district of former Gazankulu "homeland" in the North-eastern

Transvaal. It enquires into the historical reasons for the present situation in

Mhala, by examining the relationship between, on the one hand, the historical

structuring of access to rural resources, and changes in the political order of

SA on the other.

Ref ID : 1198

925. Fisher, A. The sub-division of Agricultural Land Act. In: Proceedings of a

symposium on the sub-division of land and change of use in Natal,Anonymous

Durban:University of Natal, 1976,

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : POLICY; KWAZULU NATAL; LAND REFORM; GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES;

LEGISLATION; LAND USE; SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Notes : The Subdivision of Agricultural Land Act was welcomed in some

agricultural circles because of fragmentation of agricultural land and

consequent speculation involving this highly essential life source had been

stopped or brought under control. On the other hand the law had placed certain

irksome bounds on the right of land-owners to dispose of their property and it

was no longer possible to dispose of land by free choice or by sale or inherited

disposal. Such limitations were thought to be essential. Were it otherwise,

the law would have had little power. Actions which the Act affected were

testamentary disposals the buying and selling of parcels of land, entering into

lease contracts, registration of servitudes and the acquisition of agricultural

land for agricultural purposes such as township establishment. All these

activities are dealt with but since testamentary dispositions are generally the

most common and since these create the greatest problems and disappointments the

authors devote greater attention to this aspect.

Ref ID : 2142

926. Flugel, W.-A. River salination due to dryland agriculture in the Western

Cape Province, Republic of South Africa. Sediment and stream water quality in a

changing environment: trends and explanation.Anonymous Anonymous Vienna:203:191-

200, 1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : WESTERN CAPE; WATER QUALITY

Ref ID : 2143

927. Flugel, W.-A. River salination due to non-point contribution of irrigation

return flow in the Breede River, Westen Cape Province, South Africa. Water

Science Technology 28:193-197, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : IRRIGATION

Ref ID : 2012

928. FOA Abstract of South African Forestry Facts for the year 1996/97. Forest

Owners Association, Johannesburg, 1998. (Abstract)

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : FORESTRY

Ref ID : 1072

929. Foran, B.D., Tainton, N.M., and Booysen, P.d. The development of a method

for assessing veld condition in three grassveld types in Natal. Proceedings of

the Grassland Society of southern Africa 13:27-33, 1978.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD CONDITION; GRASSLAND

Abstract : A method for assessing the condition of veld has been developed in

the Dry Tall Grassveld, Moist Tall Grassveld and Highland Sourveld of Natal.

The method is based on Dykershuis Quantitative Climax Method which has been

modified to suit the sub-climax nature of this veld by the incorporation of

three categories of plants: Decreaser species which decline in abundance with

bad management; Increaser 1 species which increase with underutulization; and

Increaser 11 species which increase with over-utilization. In addition, this

modified method allows for a deduction of marks for veld whose basal cover falls

below that of veld in its optimum condition. In all three types there was a

close relationship between the abundance of Themeda triandra and the veld

condition. It is probable therefore, that this single measure can be used to

forecast veld condition in these veld types.

Ref ID : 676

930. Foran, D.B. The development and testing of methods for assessing the

condition of three grassveld types in Natal.University of Natal,

Pietermaritzburg. , 1976. Master of Science.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : GRASSLAND; VELD CONDITION; VELD MANAGEMENT; KWAZULU NATAL; AID;

EROSION; BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Notes : Seventy-nine per cent of the beef cattle grazed on veld for some part of

the year in Natal are carried on Dry Tall Grassveld, Moist Tall Grassveld and

Highland Sourveld. For this reason they were chosen for a study which aimed to

develop and test a method for assessing veld condition. Because these veld

types constitute a fire-grazing sub-climax and are prone to degeneration through

underutilization and overutilization, it was believed that such a condition

assessment method was needed to aid in the maintenance of long-term stable

animal production. Following a comprehensive review of condition assessment

literature the Quantitative Climax Method (QCM) was chosen as the basic template

on which the veld condition assessment method would be based. The Increaser and

Invader plant classes of this method were not used and instead an Increaser 1

and Increaser 11 group were substituted. The Increaser 1 plants increased as

veld became over-rested and tended to go towards the climatic climax, while

Increaser 11 plants increased with overgrazing. Initial results showed that the

QCM lacked sensitivity in its form. Therefore rating scales were introduced

which gave deductions when yield, basal cover, erosion, plant vigour and bush

encroachment transgressed certain limits. A number of combinations of these

ratings deducted from the initial score based on plant composition gave a total

of eight condition methods which were to be tested. The testing procedure was

based on the matching of a quantitative condition score and subjective

assessments of veld condition. The first test was a histogram method in which

the fit of the quantitative scores inside subjective assessment blocks was used

to choose or disregard a method. In addition to this test, correlation and

regression analyses were used to test the relationship between the quantitative

scores and various objective criteria. The method selected were as follows:

from the initial score based on species composition a deduction was made of four

times the difference between the basal cover percentage of the survey site and

the basal cover of the ideally managed benchmark site. The survey in Dry Tall

Grassveld covered sites in different condition classes which were due to both

underutilization and overutilization. Themeda triandra was the most important

species in this veld type averaging 54 per cent, while Apochaete hispida (10%)

and Setaria perennis were subdominants. A highly significant regression was

found between T. triandra and veld condition score. In the Moist Tall Grassveld

T. triandra (30%) is less important while A. hispida (20%) is relatively more

abundant than in the Dry Tall Grassveld. In this veld type also there was a

highly significant regression between T. triandra and veld condition score. T.

triandra (26%) and A. hispida (25%) were also the most important species in

Highland Sourveld. A highly significant regression was found between T.

triandra and veld condition score. When the condition method was used to

interpret and discuss a grazing trial in Moist Tall Grassveld at Ukulinga, it

did follow the changes which had occurred over the years, and did show

differences between the treatments, which were borne out by the expected

potential of those treatments for animal production. In discussion of grazing

trials in Highland Sourveld at Kokstad the method showed changes over the years

but did not differentiate between management treatments. This lack of

distinction in condition score was to some extent borne out by lack of

significant differences between the treatments at any one time for such criteria

as plant composition and basal cover. Sampling tests indicate that 200 points

in a 0,1 ha area using a wheel point apparatus will give a reliable and

repeatable condition score provided that the operator is competent, and

experienced in that particular veld type. A trained operator should take from

20 to 40 minutes for a sample of this size.

Ref ID : 1874

931. Forbes, R.G. and Trollope, W.S.W. Veld management in the communal areas of

Ciskei. Journal of the Grasslands Society of Southern Africa 8(4):147-152, 1991.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD MANAGEMENT; COMMUNAL AREA; CISKEI; LAND TENURE; STOCKING RATE;

CARRYING CAPACITY; VELD CONDITION; LAND USE

Abstract : Veld management in Ciskei is based predominantly on a communal land

tenure system, and livestock is produced under a 'Group Ranch' system. Stocking

rates are excessively high and consequently veld degradation is severe,

resulting in a lowered carrying capacity and low efficiency indicators such as

weaning percentage. Veld rehabilitation programmes during the 1960s resulted in

some improvement in veld condition, but also caused bush encroachment and

selective grazing. Factors limiting veld rehabilitation are of a political,

socio-economic and technical nature, the most important being overstocking, the

land tenure system and incorrect land use. A solution to the continued

degradation of the veld depends on the commitment of the government to a

development strategy which addresses factors such as freehold tenure, education

and the provision of incentive for profitable production.

Ref ID : 1836

932. Fouche, H.J., De Jager, J.M., and Opperman, D.P.J. A mathematical model for

assessing the influence of stocking rate on the incidence of droughts and for

estimating the optimal stocking rates. Journal of the Grasslands Society of

Southern Africa 2(3):4-6, 1985.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : MODELS; STOCKING RATE; DROUGHT; SOIL PROPERTIES; GRASSLAND

Abstract : The Putu 11 simulation model was used to simulate veld production for

each of 47 years, using weather input data and soil properties of a site at

Glen. Grassland drought was defined as that condition encountered when 100

kg/ha or less standing dry matter was simulated. Model simulations of monthly

DM production at five selected stocking rates were used for determining the

dates of occurrence and duration of the droughts. Simulated drought duration was

found to be linearly related to stocking rate. Theoretically, no droughts were

identified at stocking rates less than 6.25 ha/LSU. A simple economic analysis

of the results indicated that the gross profits were optimised at a rate of 5.78

ha/LSU. The use of mathematical models for drought analysing and classificaton

was successfully demonstrated.

Ref ID : 2244

933. Fourie, J.H. Verslag in verband met bosindringing in die Vrystaatstreek.

Proceedings of a workshop on bush encroachment and bush thickening held in

Pretoria. Pienaar, A.J.Anonymous Pretoria:Department of Agriculture and

Fisheries. :B1-B11, 1980.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT

Ref ID : 1358

934. Fourie, J.H., Dry, J.G., and Hamman, H. Veld management in the Northern

Cape. Farming in South Africa :1-7, 1982.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD MANAGEMENT; NORTHERN CAPE; BUSH ENCROACHMENT; CLIMATE;

POPULATION

Notes : The Cape Province north of the Orange River, covers a total area of

about 17 million ha, 14 million ha of which is natural grazing. The area is

owned by approximately 10 000 White farmers. In this area the grass component

is the major source of grazing and the emphasis therefore falls on the efficient