Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

"sustainable livelihood". Definitions are discussed and questioned. Aspects of

the livelihoods of residents in Tshunelani were explored in depth. Information

on a range of subjects such as sources of income and livelihood, village

structure and social composition, household dynamics, community-based

initiatives, farming systems, natural resource use and management, village

infrastructure and service provision, leadership structures, and education was

collected and discussed. Emphasis was placed, throughout, on the processes,

changes and constraints, both historical and contemporary, which have affected

people's lilvelihoods and their responses to these. These detailed findings

provided the basis for developing a list of adaptive strategies and helped us

explore, with the community, indicators of sustainable livelihoods. The

residents of Tshunelani and the wider Bushbuckridge district have adapted and

responded to their situation and circumstances in a variety of ways. Some key

strategies employed included: diversification of the household income base

through a range of formal and informal sector activities, commercialisation of

"free" natural resources, development of neighbourhood sharing networks and

other support structures, the adoption of "modern" farming methods alongside

more "traditional" approaches, establishment of mechanisms for accessing and

maximising land availability and use, changes in household authority structure,

and a variety of other specific responses to a range of factors. An additional

important strategy identified in the Bushbuckridge region as a whole, was the

development of community-based committees to lobby for the provision of certain

basic needs and services such as water, schools and electricity. Drought, as a

major stress factor, resulted in a range of responses, or coping strategies, to

see the community through this crisis period. What was very clear, throughout

the process, was the recognition that education is the key to sustainable

livelihoods in the future, and that parents go to considerable lengths and

hardship to ensure that their children receive basic schooling. The need for

cash to pay for schooling was often quoted as the major reason for pursuing

alternative income sources, including a range of home-based industries and

commercialisation of subsistence activities such as farming and gathering. The

greatest threats to sustainable livelihoods appeared to be a lack of employment

opportunities, a lack of local "ownership" of resources which was reflected in

an over-dependency on the authorities (primarily a consequence of the apartheid

era), the hints of corruption and patronage, the lack of agricultural land, and

the pressure on the natural resource base, possibly leading ultimately to

deforestation and soil degradation.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : COMMUNAL AREA; MPUMALANGA; POVERTY; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS;

DEFORESTATION; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; SAVANNA; FARMING SYSTEMS; DROUGHT

Notes : Available from Wits Rural Facility, Private Bag X420, Acornhoek, 1360.

Ref ID : 1719

1812. Shackleton, S. and Tapson, A. Proceedings of the mini-symposium on common

property resource management: Nylsvley Nature Reserve 4 - 5 August

1998.Anonymous Pretoria:Common Property Resource Management. :i-174, 1998.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : NATURE RESERVES; VELD MANAGEMENT

Notes : The main objectives of this meeting were: to bring researchers and

practitioners together to share experiences in the area of common property

natural resource management (CPNRM); to learn about the various initiatives that

are taking place in SA at present; to identify and promote awareness of key

institutional issues in CPNRM; to draw out lessons and recommendations for the

practical implementation of CPNRM in different contexts; to facilitate further

networking and collaboration; and to produce a working document of case studies.

Suggestions were also provided for the way forward and planning for a future

meeting.

Ref ID : 871

1813. Shakesby, R.A. and Whitlow, R. Perspectives on prehistoric and recent

gullying in central Zimbabwe. Geojournal 23:49-58, 1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ZIMBABWE

Ref ID : 145

1814. Sharp, J. Contested terrain: agriculture and development in the 'rural

coloured areas'. 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; COMMUNAL AREA; NORTHERN CAPE; SUCCULENT

KAROO; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; POPULATION

Notes : Paper presented to the IDASA Conference on Rural Land, March 1990. The

author concludes with 3 points: Firstly, people interested in the Rural

Coloured Areas would probably do well to follow the debate about land tenure and

the homelands in a future SA closely. Such is the power of apartheid thinking,

however, that not one recent source on developing the Rural Areas makes so much

as a passing reference to this discussion. Secondly, probably the most realistic

suggestion to date is made by Dunne (1986), who suggested that development

planning should take cognisance of the long-term flow of people out of the Rural

Areas. Any intervention should be designed to make this exodus as easy as

possible, probably by providing training and housing in the urban areas (which

has some chance of success) rather than in the Rural Areas (which has none).

People who remain in, or return to, the Rural Areas have long made a conscious

decision to forego certain of the amenities and advantages that the urban areas

have to offer. This is a choice they will continue to have to make in the

future. Thirdly, however, this should not mean that the idea of communal tenure

can be allowed simply to slip away. Efforts to lower the artificial population

pressure in these areas would provide scope for innovative experiment with the

notion of communal tenure. But such experiment will have to take place in the

context of the broader discussion of the merits of individual and communal

tenure and of co-operative and collective agriculture in a future SA as a whole.

And it is in this context, of a political decision about future directions, that

the considerable evidence about the environmental advantages of communal systems

is properly deployed. If one is talking about long-term options, one cannot

pursue a future for the Rural Areas that will simply maintain a fictitious image

of a 'traditional' past.

Ref ID : 2078

1815. Shaughnessy, G.L. A case study of some woody plant introductions to the

Cape Town area. In: The ecology and management of biological invasions in

Southern Africa, edited by Macdonald, I.A.W., Kruger, F.J., and Ferrar,

A.A.South Africa:Oxford University Press, 1986,p. 37-43.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOUTHERN AFRICA

Ref ID : 176

1816. Shaw, J. On the changes going on in the vegetation of South Africa through

the introduction of the Merino sheep. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society

14:202-208, 1875.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VEGETATION CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; STOCKING RATE; CLIMATE

Notes : In this paper the author proposes to show how the persistent and greedy

system of overstocking farms has changed the flora, introduced and given undue

influence to a worse herbage, and bids fair in time to change the climate and,

with this, the whole character of the vegetation.

Ref ID : 491

1817. Sherry, S. Experimental measurement of runoff and soil erosion in wattle

plantations in Natal. Proceedings of the Third International African Soil

Conference.Anonymous Anonymous :677-683, 1959.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; RUNOFF; ALIEN PLANTS; KWAZULU NATAL

Ref ID : 389

1818. Showers, K. and Malahleha, G.M. Soil erosion in the kingdom of Lesotho:

Oral evidence. Journal of Southern African Studies 18(2):276-296, 1992.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; LESOTHO

Ref ID : 1485

1819. Showers, K.B. and Malahleha, B.M. Oral evidence in historical

environmental impact assessment in Lesotho in the 1930's and 1940's. Journal of

Southern African Studies , 1992.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : LESOTHO; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; DESERTIFICATION ASSESSMENT

Ref ID : 872

1820. Showers, K.B. and Malahleha, G.M. Soil conservation in Lesotho in the

1930s and 1940s. Journal of Southern African Studies 18(2):276-296, 1992.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : LESOTHO; SOIL CONSERVATION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY

Ref ID : 1125

1821. Sidiropoulos, E. South Africa survey 1996/1997, South African Institute of

Race Relations, 1997.-910.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : STATISTICS; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; POPULATION

Ref ID : 935

1822. Siegfried, W.R. and Brooke, R.K. Anthropogenic extinctions in the

terrestrial biota of the afrotropical region in the last 500,000 years. Journal

of African Zoology 109(1):5-14, 1995.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : GRAZING EFFECTS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; PALAEOENVIRONMENTS;

ARCHAEOLOGY; SOUTHERN AFRICA

Abstract : It is proposed that until the development of behaviourally modern

people ca 40,000 BP, homonids in the Afrotropical Region were neither abundant

enough nor technologically advanced enough to cause biotic extinctions. During

and immediately after the climatic change which forms the boundary between the

Late Pleistocene and Holocene there was one mammalian extinction in eastern

Africa and eight in southern Africa. It appears that in largely extra-tropical

southern Africa climatic change, including a rise in sea level, leading to

reduced abundance in grass, coupled with human huntic pressure, led to the

extinctions. Two large grazing mammal species were hunted to extinction in the

historical period in the Cape Province of SA. As far as is known, no animal

species has been exterminated by humans in historical times in east and central

Africa, but several invertebrates and one lizard have been rendered extinct by

the direct and/or indirect activities of people in SA. There is insufficient

evidence for a definitive assessment affecting plants, although at least 26

species are believed to have become extinct in SA, and possibly the true total

could involve hundreds of species during the historical period of European

settlement.

Ref ID : 1441

1823. Sim, T.R. Botanical observations on the forests of eastern Pondoland.

Agricultural Journal of the Cape of Good Hope 16:21-42, 104-114, 1900.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : FOREST; DEFORESTATION; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; LAND USE

Ref ID : 1012

1824. Sim, T.R. Some effects on man's influence on the South African flora.

South African Journal of Science XXIII:492-507, 1926.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND DEGRADATION; GRAZING EFFECTS; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; CLIMATE

Notes : Time leaves its mark, hence ecology. The flora of the world has existed

through three distinct though overlapping periods of time, namely: (1) that long

period from creation till now, during which changes of climate and flora have

taken place; (2) the present time, more or less, with the flora as we find it;

and (3) the future, to which the other two are leading and which has, in part,

appeared in recent times. These periods are discussed in this article.

Ref ID : 2564

1825. Simalenga, T.E., Belete, A., Mseleni, N.A., and Jongisa, L.L. Assessing

the profitability of using animal traction under smallholder farming conditions

in Ciskei region. 1999.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; FARMING SYSTEMS; RURAL

DEVELOPMENT; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose of the study was threefold: 1. to determine the utilisation

levels of draft animal power under smallholder conditions; 2 to carry out cost

benefit analysis; and 3. to assess farmers' constraints and opportunities of

using draught animal power at farm level. A survey was undertaken in 1996 to

determine the extent of use and management of draught animals in the Eastern

Cape Province. In this survey a total of 94 rural households were interviewed.

As a follow-up to the 1996 survey, 13 representative farmers from the communal

areas of the former Ciskei region, namely: Middledrift, Tyume, Amatola Basin,

Mdantsane, Zwelitsha and Cathcart were selected and interviewed for an in-depth

cost benefit analysis. The study revealed that most small-holder farmers in the

study area use draught animals as the main source of farm power. To carry out

the cost benefit analysis, six scenarios were considered. They were: 1. use of

oxen for ploughing only; 2. use of oxen for ploughing and carting; 3. use of

donkeys for ploughing; 4. use of donkeys for ploughing and carting; 5. use of

horses for ploughing; and 6. use of horses for ploughing and carting. For all

scenarios, the benefit exceeds the cost and the net farm income is positive and

significant. The study has confirmed that draught animal power is still a

realistic and cost effective option for improving small-holder farming systems.

Since draught animal power is an alternative and complementary technology,

necessary support is required in terms of scientific research, education,

training and to provide improved agricultural support services for rural

communities in South Africa. This article is still in press, but is available

from the Document Centre, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Fort Hare. See

also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 671

1826. Simkins, C.E.W. Agricultural production in the African reserves of South

Africa, 1918-1969. Development Studies Research Group Working Paper No

10.Anonymous Anonymous Pietermaritzburg:Development Studies Research Group. :1-

29, 1979.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; COMMUNAL AREA; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY;

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL

Notes : The purpose of this study is to critique previous propositions about

agricultural production and to offer fuller, more systematic accounts of its

evolution from 1918 to 1969. The temporal limits of the study were determined

by two primary factors: 1918 was the first year in which a Union Agricultural

Census was taken. It is submitted that these Censuses are crucial sources for

the analysis which follows; and this study implicitly assumes that agriculture

is virtually the only form of economic activity within the reserves. During the

late sixties the reserve economies started to undergo substantial restructuring

and this assumption ceased to hold.

Ref ID : 2409

1827. Simon, C.M. Kinship, illness and therapy management in rural Transkei

community. South African Journal of Ethnology , 1990.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : TRANSKEI; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose was to supplement existing studies on kinship and illness by

providing a detailed discussion of the rate of kinship groups in managing

illness among the Xhosa-speaking people. The author used a case study involving

three families in the Willowvale district. Natal kin, in-laws, and husband

present only three avenues by which the majority of adult dependants can attempt

to overcome illness. These three avenues illustrate the role that social

arrangements can play in negotiating the personal and financial hardships

accompanying ill health. As observed, kinship relations are utilised for their

resource value: they are mechanisms by which patients or their guardians

maximise priorities such as availability of cash, access to treatment and

personal comfort. This article is available at the UFH main library. See ref.

I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 2178

1828. Simons, D.B. Effects of stream regulation on channel morphology. In: The

ecology of regulated streams, edited by Ward, J.V. and Stanford, J.A.New

York:Plenum Press, 1979,p. 95-111.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 1302

1829. Simpson, D.E. Quantification of the effect of land-use on runoff water

quality in selected catchments in Natal.Anonymous Pretoria:C.S.I.R. 237/1/91:1-

126, 1991.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND USE; RUNOFF; WATER QUALITY; MODELS; MONITORING

Notes : The aims of the project as given in the original research proposal are

as follows: (1) to characterise and compare runoff water quality and annual

loads from different types of land-use, with particular reference to important

land-uses in the Mgeni Catchment. Measurement to be made during low and high

flow periods for water quality variables of concern; (2) to synthesise the data

collected into a suitable form for inclusion into the proposed Mgeni Catchment

water quantity/quality model being developed by the University of Natal; and (3)

to investigate the need to set up a long term monitoring programme (5 years or

more) on one or more selected catchments with specific land-uses in order to

assess spatial, temporal and development effects on water quality.

Ref ID : 559

1830. Simpson, D.E. Quantification of the effects of land use on runoff water

quality in selected catchments in Natal.Anonymous Pretoria:Water Research

Commission. 237/1/91, 1992.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; LAND USE; RUNOFF; HYDROLOGY; KWAZULU NATAL

Ref ID : 2410

1831. Sixiki, N.M. Evaluation of Nkanga Rural Development Project. 1990.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : RURAL DEVELOPMENT; POPULATION; TRANSKEI; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS;

INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS; STATISTICS; GENDER ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose of the study was to determine which of the following

factors, namely: physical, socio-economic, psychological and institutional have

contributed to the failure of the Nkanga Rural Development Project. The study

was conducted through field surveys and interviews. Questionnaires were also

administered to respondents. Secondary sources of information from the Local

Authority and the Department of Agriculture were further used. The report

contains information on the characteristics of the population in terms of age,

family size, sex, marital status and educational standard. 64% of respondents

were between 51 - 70 years of age and are working people at home. The average

family size at Nkanga was 3.7. The composition of the farming community was 64%

women and 36% men. 48% of farmers at the project were not supported or had

little income from other sources. Some farmers make grass brooms, bundles of

firewood and thatch grass for additional income. 24% (22% women, and 2% men) of

the respondents had education. 60% of the respondents had farming experience of

more than 5 years. Farmers, however, had no means to fulfil their farming

objectives. The study concluded that the project had very little or no impact

as far as the development of the human potential and the improvement of social

amenities are concerned. This dissertation is obtainable from the Document

Centre, Agriculture, UFH. See ref. I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 2573

1832. Skaug, B.I. Credit to small scale farmers and rural dwellers in South

Africa: a case study from the Alice and Middledrift areas in the Eastern Cape.

1998.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : EASTERN CAPE; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; MODELS; DROUGHT; AID; ECONOMIC

ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Notes : The purpose of the study was to identify factors that may be associated

with loan performance in the community, and rural development loans from the

Ciskeian Agricultural Bank (CAB). The research method consisted of

investigating computer files from CAB, collating a synopsis, interviews with

field officers of CAB and conducting group interviews with farmers. The

following statistical models were used to analyse data: multiple linear

regression and tobit analysis. The descriptive analysis showed large a

variation in the distribution of loan repayments to CAB, and the existence of

arrears. The study also found that clients with agricultural loans faced the

risk of production failures, particularly following droughts and as a result are

unable to repay the loans. This masters thesis is available at the Document

Centre, Agriculture, University of Fort Hare. See also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2179

1833. Skelton, P.H. A complete guide to the freshwater fish of southern Africa,

Halfway House:Southern Book Publishers, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOUTHERN AFRICA

Ref ID : 1144

1834. Slater, H. Land labour and capital in Natal: the Natal land and

colonisation company 160-1948. Journal of African History XVI(2):275-283, 1975.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; KWAZULU NATAL

Ref ID : 355

1835. SLEMSA Soil loss estimator for Southern Africa. Natal Agric.Res.Bull. 7,

1997.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; SEDIMENTATION

Ref ID : 1273

1836. Smit, G.N., Rethman, N.F.G., and Moore, A. Review article: Vegetative

growth, reproduction, browse production and response to tree clearing of woody

plants in African savanna. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 13(2):78-

88, 1996.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT; CARRYING CAPACITY; GLOBAL CHANGE; SAVANNA;

STOCKING RATE; SOIL NUTRIENTS; FIRE; LAND USE

Abstract : This review deals with issues including the determinants of

vegetative growth of woody plants (soil water availability, water stress, soil

nutrient availability, carbohydrate reserves, plant hormones, atmospheric CO2

concentration, tree age, competition, defoliation and shoot prining, fire,

pathogens, soil and climatic conditions), reproduction (the ability of mature

trees to flower and produce viable seeds, the ability fo seeds to disperse and

germinate, seedling survivoship), and browse production. Emphasis is placed on

how these may be influenced by tree clearing, either through exploitation or

through deliberate actions aimed at reducing the suppressive effect of an

increase in woody plant density on the production of the herbaceous layer. A

diverse range of aspects, related to the dynamics of the woody component of