Traditionally and up to the present, the land of most Naga tribes is classified broadly into primary or agricultural land and reserved land. The reserved land consists of (i) land kept for public purposes including forest land under the control of the village council. (ii) Clan or khel land used by clan members (iii) Inherited or acquired privately owned land. (Tamuly, 1985: 96-98).
Among the Thadou of Manipur, land is under the control of the village chief, who after consulting his ministers called Semang Pachang, allocates Jhoom plots and ensures all families get an equal share. Each family pays a tax. Families unhappy with their chief can leave the village and live elsewhere. (Rajkhowa, 1986: 96). For the Mizos, land was under the village council controlled by the chief, who allocated for Jhoom with advice of experts on shifting cultivation called Ramhual. Villagers paid tribute in terms of paddy. The chiefs’ power in respect of land were not touched by the British (Das, 1990: 6). However the Government of Assam abolished the chieftainship in 1954 through The Assam Lushai Hills District (Acquisition of Chief’s Rights) Act 1954 (Assam Act XXI of 1954), and brought land under the State. Four kinds of land continue in Mizoram, i) district forest under state control and ban on agriculture; ii) ‘safety supply reserve forests by district councils with a ban on agriculture; iii) village council owned ‘safety and supply reserve forests’ for the benefit of the villagers for fuelwood for personal use and not sale; iv) unclassed forest under the village council allotted to individuals on patta or leases for homestead and cultivation (Mahajan 1991: 81-82).
Tripura had a different regime with Jhoom land allotted by the ruler through his collectors, who in turn were assisted by a village Choudhury. Land was classified into six categories; i) Jhoom land belonging to the community and managed by the village authority under the control of the Choudhury, ii) Nal – fertile land individually owned, inheritable not alienable; iii) Lunga, land between hills for; permanent cultivation allotted to tribals with yearly tax; iv) Chera- land was situated on both sides of the river owned by villagers and allotted for cultivation; v) Bhiti and Bastu individually owned and heritable but not transferable land. (Roy 1986: 59-62). However very little remains because tribes are reduced to a minority and only individual alienable title is recognized. (Debbarma, forthcoming). Land ownership in Arunachal Pradesh varied from tribe to tribe. For Nyishis and Galo, CPRs were demarcated and managed by the village council. For the Adis, land vested in the community and allotted by the chief to individual households.(Agarwal 1991: 44). Aka had no tradition of ownership, each family cultivated as much Jhoom or riverbank lands as needed. (Fernandes and Bharali 2002: 22-23).
7.3.7 Khasis of Meghalaya have four broad categories of land; i) Raid - community land managed by the village council and used only by permanent Khasi residents for housing, common facilities and agriculture; (ii) Rykynti – private land; iii. Clan land. owned by the respective clans iv) forest land divided into sacred forest, village community forest controlled by the village darbar, protected forest for domestic use, not for sale and v) Individual forest used by the owner (Dutta 2002: 59). Ri Bhoi District in Khasi hills was unique because land was communally owned, controlled and managed by the chief representing a cluster of villages in almost the entire district (Nongkyrih, forthcoming). However, the power of the Darbar is reduced though traditional systems of land ownership continues. (Dutta 2002: 2).
7.3.8 In the Garo Hills (Meghalaya) land was traditionally under the control of the Chief (Nokma) while homestead plots were owned but by the community (Kar 1982: 29). At present, hilly land, almost 95 percent of the total land, is covered by customary law while plains lands are governed by the Assam Land and Revenue Regulation Act of 1886, adopted by the Garo Hills Autonomous District Council in 1952. (Phira 1991). In Jaintia territories of Meghalaya, CPRs were owned by the Chief, Syiem, till the British ownership of the CPRs on the State and converted all the Rajhali (Syiem’s private land) into Government land. Thus, community land in Jaintia hills was made government land, tillers given pattas for ten years and subjected to land revenue (Pyal 2002: 24).
7.3.9 Land in the plains and valleys of NE belongs to the state while in the hills, land belongs to the people with the village authority council as custodian. Kuki, Sema, Mizo are exceptions where land belongs to the Village Chief and villagers are tenants with occupancy rights as the chief permits. In matters related to sale, Chief is the authority to decide and residence of the buyer makes no difference. Chieftainship was abolished for the Mizos while it continues with the Kuki and Sema. However, rumblings of revolt against oppressive land regimes are felt in many Kuki villages in Manipur.
7.4 Livelihood Systems and Food Insecurity
Current tenural and resource management practices contribute to growing food insecurity, while customary laws come into conflict with the modern state systems and regulatory legislation, which recognises the customary practices and form of ownership in principle, but the ambiguous authority of the Government over land generates conflict and has crippled its implementation.
7.5 Land and Agriculture
Table, 7.2 below distinguishes land as hills and plains to identify of land use pattern in the region. By and large, it is clear that tribes practicing shifting cultivation inhabit the hilly regions and while settled cultivation is predominant in the plains.
Table - 7.2: Location of tribals
Region
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Plains (30%)
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Brahmaputra Valley.
Barak Valley of Kachar
Tripura Manipur (valley)
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Assamese, Bodos, Adivasis and other plain tribes
Bengalis and tribals.
Tripuris, and Bengali Meiteis
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Hills (70%)
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Meghalaya
Mizoram
Manipur (hill)
Nagaland
Arunachal Pradesh
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Khasis, Garos, Pnars, Tiwas, Lyngams.
Mizos: Kuki-Chin family of tribes.
Various kuki-chin and Naga Tribes.
Naga tribes: .Ao, Angamis, Semas, Lothas, Rengmas, Sangthams,
Changs, Phoms Konyaks.
Adis, Akas, Apatanis, Khamtis, Miris, Mishmis, Nishis, Noctes, Wanchos.
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Tenure System
While customary regimes and government regulation co-exist in the entire region, custom governs the tenure system, particularly in the hills and three forms of land ownership are observed.
  
Chief land
Community land
Individual land
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Control and management of lands by village chiefs with right to cultivation for individual members is observed in tribes belonging to the Kuki-Mizo constellation (in Manipur, Mizoram); Semas, Konyaks (in Nagaland) and Noctes, Wochos (in Arunachal Pradesh), with strong chieftainship systems. While the Chief cannot deny land to a villager nor own lands in a manner that reduces the holdings of the villagers, he exercises his prerogative to determine allotment of plots for cultivation and manages community resources and receives tribute in exchange and not rent for land.
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Lands owned by the villagers collectively was recorded, in ethnographic accounts, as prevalent among tribal people practising Jhoom and holds good in most even today. Land is held in trust as a social guarantee against unemployment and destitution for all willing to work. Uncultivated land reverts back to the community and can be assigned to any other member.
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Land owned by the individual families is observed in the plains. The law conferred private ownership since 1886 in Assam, while private ownership is seen in Tripura and Manipur from 1960. Ahom, Manipur and Tripura kings acquired proprietary rights over land through conquest hence, other rights were subsidiary to the rights of the king. Individual ownership is seen in settled agriculture in the hills, and private ownership recognized without title deeds (Patta) where land reforms were initiated. Patriarchal inheritance and descent is observed in most of the tribes of North-East with the exception of Khasi, Jaintia and Garos of Meghalaya where matriarchy is practised though ironically the maternal uncle has the control over sale or purchase.
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Management Practices
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