Empowering destitute people towards transforming communities

2“Inside-out” missions as the fostering of social ties

The importance of “community” in the lives of destitute people has already been touched upon. It starts with the need to belong and relate: internally experienced by all people, the destitute included. It encompasses being part of a valued group that empowers its members to become self-motivated to change (internally), making community an important part of missions with the destitute from the “inside-out”.
However, social ties and being part of a community also functions from the “outside-in” to empower destitute people, in the sense that this creates support and encouragement, and also external social spaces (and environments) that empower the destitute towards sustainable living. Becoming part of a community starts with the fostering of social ties.

2.1Destitution often means social isolation

Research continues to demonstrate that destitute people are relatively socially isolated (Rossi, 1989; Shlay & Rossi, 1992), with few friends (if any) and little contact with family members. The lack of strong ties to family and friends is important because it means few have the social and economic support to move off the streets. Helping destitute people re-establish ties to family and friends, or create new ties, may therefore either prevent destituteness or its re-occurrence (Shlay & Rossi, 1992:145).
Most destitute people are single, often never married (Rossi, 1989:24). However, even though most destitute people are not married, many do have children. Many destitute people report either having “worn out their welcome” with their family and friends prior to becoming destitute, or never having experienced much familial support. One interesting question concerning the family and social networks of destitute people is whether their reported lack of ties represents a long-term condition or is a more recent phenomenon. There are at least three arguments that can be advanced about the family relations of people who are destitute, all three supported by research to some degree (Snow & Anderson, 1993:55):

1. 
   They used to have ties with their families some time in the past, but have worn them out prior to becoming destitute;
   
2. 
   Their family situation was dysfunctional and/or abusive prior to becoming destitute; or
   
3. 
   There was never much family support to begin with.
   

Evidence exists for all three of the possibilities above. Impoverished adults usually exhaust the resources and aid provided by family, friends, and social welfare agencies before becoming destitute (Wong & Piliavin, 1997:410). There is also support for the argument that many of the people who are on the streets became destitute because they were never associated with stable and supportive familial networks (Nyamathi, Bennet, & Leake, 1997; Reilly, 1993; Snow & Anderson, 1993). Many studies have shown that destitute people are more likely to have spent time in their youth in a foster-care situation and/or to have had other types of adverse childhood experiences, such as physical or sexual abuse (Koegel, Melamid, & Burnam, 1995; Sosin, Colson, & Grossman, 1988; Susser, Lin, Conover, & Struening, 1991; Toro, Bellavia, Daeschler, et al., 1995). As a consequence of such childhood experiences, many of these people may have little or no family support upon which to draw.

Taken together, all of these findings indicate that numerous people who are destitute may possess few family resources that they can rely upon once they are on the streets.

2.2Destitute people also have social ties

As noted earlier, studies have consistently shown that destitute people do not have extensive ties to relatives or friends, and that they generally have fewer social ties than the non-destitute (Rossi, 1989:25; Shlay & Rossi, 1992:132). However, these same studies indicate that destitute people are not “totally isolated,” as might be inferred from some discussions of disaffiliation among the destitute (La Gory et al., 1991:202) and none suggest that there is a virtual absence of any ties (Shlay & Rossi, 1992:134).

Although destitute people typically maintain some social connections, these ties are not very strong and may not provide much support. The social ties of destitute people have been found to be weaker and less efficacious than the social support obtained by people who are not destitute (La Gory et al., 1991:207; Snow & Anderson, 1990).

As summarized by Snow and Anderson (1993:22), the social relationships developed between destitute people are “plagued by contradictory characteristics.” On the one hand, friendships are often quickly formed, and there is generally an ethos of sharing whatever modest resources are available. Yet at the same time, there is also a chronic distrust of one another, and a fragility and impermanence in these social bonds, perhaps best exemplified by the fact that many people cannot provide the last names of those they consider friends (Rowe & Wolch, 1990:185; Snow & Anderson, 1993:23). The reasons for these weak ties may stem more from the precarious conditions under which the bonds are formed than from any personal characteristics. More specifically, the ability to quickly establish and sever weak ties may embody an important survival value, particularly in the “resource-depleted context” of being destitute (Snow & Anderson, 1993:24).

Destitute people who have more social ties with other destitute people may experience a harder time moving off the streets. Making friends and links with others living on the streets may act as “a double-edged sword” (Grigsby et al., 1990:142). In particular, although they may help with survival on the streets, these ties may block efforts to move out of destitution. Developing coping skills for the street may inadvertently reinforce an identity of “self-as-destitute” (Rowe & Wolch, 1990:187) that increases the difficulty of making the transition into a situation of non-destitution. Developing alternative communities that foster social networks will help in adjusting from the street and from destitute people’s networks.