Global Development

CVET at the initiative of enterprises or social Partners

In-company CVET may take place in the company or outside but it is usually the company that pays for provision and it usually takes place during regular working hours. Recently there seems to be a small tendency towards a stronger involvement of employees in CVET financing and also towards it taking place outside of regular working hours. CVET which is also in an employee’s interest, as it imparts general rather than company-specific skills, usually takes place at least in part during non-working hours. According to the 2004 study of the Institute for Business Research, about 84% of companies invested in CVET activities of their employees.

The definition of CVET plays a central role when calculating the percentage of employees taking part in in-company provision. Whether the definition should be restricted to formal courses and seminars or whether it should also include non-formal and/or informal forms.

4. European and international dimensions, towards an open area of lifelong learning

Since 2002 the German government has been implementing its Lifelong Learning for All action programme comprising various sub-programmes. The major impetus for this was drawn from the resolutions passed by the Council of Europe and the EU education ministers in 2000 and subsequent years.

Bruges-Copenhagen process: European activities under this framework such as the development of a European Qualifications Framework (EQF), a European Credit Transfer System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) and EUROPASS, have provided the initiative for national initiatives. For example, the EQF consultation process gave greater momentum to thinking about a national qualifications framework for Germany, including discussion of such questions as how to record informal learning and work processes, and how to describe qualifications and competencies. A question of crucial importance is how the existing occupational system, geared towards formal certificates, will relate to a competency-based system, i.e. the debate over Beruflichkeit (alignment with recognised occupations) and modularisation.

Bilateral exchange programmes and the LEONARDO da VINCI programme

Bilateral exchange programmes support apprentices in acquiring international qualifications. The Federal Ministry of Education and Research supports cross-border cooperation in education and training, it promotes the transparency of degrees and qualifications and fosters mobility in VET. Exchange programmes are intended to motivate young adults to spend part of their vocational training abroad.

A core element for internationalising German VET is the Leonardo da Vinci programme.

Translation of training profiles

In the last few years, training profiles have been developed in three languages for all new occupations requiring formal training, to supplement the final certificate. They provide essential details about what has been taught during training and are issued with the final certificate. In the future, they will also be issued upon completion of further education. Germany has forged ahead with its efforts at European level, so that this procedure for providing details on certificates will be applied throughout Europe in the future.

The Emergence of the Community College Associate Degree

in Hong Kong
Gerard A. Postiglione

Steven S. K. Kwok

The MacDonaldization of the American community college model has occurred with greater frequency in recent years in many parts of the world, including Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Ghana, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Malaysia, Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea Spain, Thailand, Turkey, and elsewhere.⁷⁵ However, nowhere has it been more rapidly and successfully implemented as in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. At the turn of the Century, and while in economic decline, Hong Kong decided to rely singularly on community colleges to double the number of places in post-secondary education within ten years, a goal it achieved five years ahead of schedule. Moreover, it achieved this in a fee paying mode in which student tuition costs exceeded that for university education. The paper begins with a brief review of the Hong Kong context, and its higher education system. The next section describes the basic characteristics of the Hong Kong CC/AD.

Context

Situated within the People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong has long been a vibrant regional center with an academic profession that is driven by its particular experience with urban metropolitan development. Foremost among these are a rich Chinese cultural heritage that anchors it value system, a thriving internationalism that shapes the political system and economic competitiveness, and a highly mobile society of migrant heritage that contributes to a high turnover of human resources. The education system is viewed as central within Hong Kong’s historic role as a bridge between China and the world, and its new vision to become Asia’s world educational hub -- a position strengthened by its geographical position, world class communication and transport infrastructure, bilingual capacity, rule of law, and academic freedom. In 1997, Hong Kong was handed back to the People’s Republic of China under a one-country, two system formula that granted Hong Kong a high degree of autonomy in all matters including education.⁷⁶ After two decades of rapid economic growth. Free speech and movement are highly cherished characteristics within Hong Kong society, but a lack of representative democracy, a legacy of the colonial era, remains a highly emotive issue. Among the more positive aspects of the colonial legacy has been the safeguarding of the rule of law and freedom of the press, and a no tolerance policy toward corruption, something which has helped Hong Kong fortify its position as a global financial center and the second largest banking center in East Asia, as well as one of the most open and free media centers in Asia.

The capitalist ideology remains robust in the economic sphere, despite the fact that most schools and universities are government-funded, something that may begun to change with privatization. Moreover, the degree of inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient is rising and remains one of the highest in Asia 0.525 in 2001.⁷⁷ The rank in UN Human Development Index is 22 [.916].⁷⁸ The population living in poverty (there is not official poverty line) has increased. A rapid growth rate, rapid population turnover, and relative prosperity in comparisons to home regions across the border have helped alleviate social instability. Nevertheless, attention to poverty has become an issue with government and the private sector initiatives. The recent upturn of the economy has slightly eased pressure on these issues. Cheaply priced goods from China including clothing, foot stuffs and household goods (along with government subsidized housing – nearly half of all housing) have helped ease the plight of the working classes in Hong Kong.

After more than two decades of rapid economic growth, the 1997 Asian economic crisis knocked Hong Kong’s economy off the rails for several years. The SARS epidemic of 2003 further crippled development prospects. Deflation lasted 68 months. However, Hong Kong’s Gross Domestic Product grew by 8.1 percent in 2004 (slightly faster than the 3.1 percent figure for the previous year), making it the second best performance since 1987.⁷⁹ The economy doubled in size over the past two decades at an average of 4.8 percent in real terms (compared with the world economy growth rate of 3.5 percent). The inflation rate was -0.4 percent. Despite its small size, Hong Kong is the world’s 11th largest trading entity. Its container port is the busiest in the world and its airport is also one of the busiest. Moreover, it is the world’s sixth largest foreign exchange market and 14th largest banking centre.

Hong Kong has expanded its service economy in line with the global demands pushing it toward a knowledge economy. There is virtually no primary production (agriculture, fisheries, mining, etc.). Secondary production (manufacturing, construction, supply of electricity, gas and water) experienced a significant decline in its share of overall production, shrinking from 23 percent in 1983 to 11 percent in 1993 to three percent in 2003, as most manufacturing operations moved across the border into China where labor costs were lower. The tertiary sector consisting largely of services often based on small scale firms, many with family roots, expanded from 67 percent in 1983 to 89 percent in 2003. Wholesale, retail, import/export trades, restaurants and hotels have expanded their share of the tertiary sector from 23 (1984) to 32 percent (2004). Finance, real estate, and business services has grown from 5 percent to 15 percent, trade, storage and communications from 8 to 11 percent and community, social and personal services from 17 to 27 percent.⁸⁰ Visible trade expanded annually by an average rate of 22 percent in value terms. That dropped to eight percent from 1994 -2004 due to direct shipping through enhancement of port facilities and simplification of customs.

The economic links between the Hong Kong SAR and the mainland have been the most important factor in economic growth.⁸¹ The Mainland is Hong Kong largest trading partner, accounting for 44 percent of all trade value, and 91 percent of Hong Kong’s re-export trade was related to the mainland. Hong Kong was the mainland’s third largest trading partner (after the USA and Japan) accounting for 10 percent of mainland’s total trade value.

There has been a sharp increase in the flow of people and services between Hong Kong and the Mainland, and Hong Kong is a principal gateway to the mainland for business and tourism. Hong Kong is a principal source of direct investment into China, accounting for 43 percent of the total inward direct investment in the mainland. The most important partner area if the Pearl River Delta and estimates are that 11 million Chinese workers (10 million in Guangdong) were employed directly or indirectly by Hong Kong ventures.

The Mainland initiated CEPA trade agreement has granted Hong Kong a special status in trade (no tariffs) and this has recently been extended to the trade in educational services. Much of the business expertise that transformed it from a fishing village to centre of trade and commerce came from the mainland and its manufacturing sector took off with the migration of Shanghai region entrepreneurs after 1949. Its manufacturing base of textiles and garments has gradually shifted over to the border into China, leaving Hong Kong to rely almost solely on its service sector for its economic growth. This includes an increased emphasis on tourism and the film industry. Nevertheless, Hong Kong it faces increased competition from neighboring cities on the Chinese mainland, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, as well as other regional centers such as Seoul and Singapore. Much of this competition is human resource related, and the Mainland government’s initiative to establish a number of world class universities has had an enormous effect on higher education planning in Hong Kong.

The total employment figure for Hong Kong in 2004 was 3.29 million, of which 32 percent were employed in wholesale, retail and import/export trades, restaurants and hotels; 27 percent were employed in community, personal and social services; 15 percent were employed in financing, insurance, real estate and business services; 11 percent were employed in transport, storage and communications; and only five percent were employed in manufacturing. The average wage for all selected industries was HK$10,740 per month (approx. $1380 USD). The unemployment rate of 6.8 percent in 2004 was much higher than the rate in the 1980s and 1990s which hovered between one and two percent. The 2005 figure for unemployment will drop to about 5.7 percent. The youth unemployment rate for ages 15-24 was 43,700 (11.2%). The mean employment rate for female/male working age population was 57.7 and 85.6 percent, respectively.⁸²

Since 1997, however, Hong Kong experienced a series of crises that have left it with a stagnant economy, and a polity frustrated by government incompetence.⁸³ Meanwhile, cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou challenge Hong Kong’s vaunted position as China’s economic powerhouse. In this new equation, the Director General of the World Trade Organization identified the pressing role of educational reform in Hong Kong.

The rise of an increasingly skilled Chinese workforce, as well as direct transportation links with Taiwan, means that Hong Kong will have to fight to keep its privileged place. If recently launched educational reforms have the intended effect of producing a more flexible, creative, and skilled workforce, Hong Kong will have a fighting chance to keep its vaunted position as China’s international window over a longer time period.⁸⁴

It is within this context that the Hong Kong SAR imported the CC/AD model from the United States and situated it within a new post-colonial society that did not have the funds to greatly expand university education due to an economic decline that began in 1997 and continued until 2005.

Higher Education

Hong Kong’s higher education policies are made independently of national educational policies. However, with increased economic integration, there is an unavoidable recognition that educational policy decisions need to take Mainland developments into consideration. In terms of size, Hong Kong has 12 degree-granting institutions, of which eight are publicly funded. The Chief Executive’s 2000 policy address set a target of having 60 percent of the 17-20 age cohorts in higher education by 2010, a doubling of the figure at the time. Due to the economic crisis, achieving this target was planned through offering wholly self-financed community college places. Although student fees for the community college places leading to two-year associate degree are higher than for university bachelor degree places, the demand for higher education was so great that the 60 percent target was achieved in half the time expected. In terms of the shape of the system, a major policy shift will convert the traditional British 5+2+3 education system to a 3+3+4 structure (three years of junior and senior secondary education with a four years university system). Although competition among the seven publicly funded universities is intense for the best students and the most research funds, new incentives have been introduced to speed cross-institutional collaboration as a way of cutting costs and strengthening areas of teaching and research. The Minister of Education has also proposed the merging of two of the top three universities, a measure that has thus far been successfully resisted.

Hong Kong higher education system was heavily influenced by its colonial heritage. It followed the British model for most of its history. It was small in scale, fully government funded, and with a high degree of autonomy from government. By mid-century, Hong Kong had only one university, the University of Hong Kong, established in 1911. Steeped in western academic traditions, with English as the medium of instruction, its graduates became the backbone of the civil service and the teaching profession. The Chinese University of Hong Kong, established in 1964, provided higher education to the growing number of graduates of Chinese medium secondary schools. The scale of higher education remained modest until a decision to nearly double the number of students admitted to university first-degree studies was taken in October of 1989. The proportion of the relevant age group (17-20) in first-degree places climbed from about 2.2 percent in 1981 to nearly 18 percent in 2000/01, where it still stands currently, amounting to 14,500 places (Sutherland, 2001, p. 1. Between 1990 and 1998, the number of universities grew from two to seven. Eight institutions (including an Institute for Education) are publicly funded through the University Grants Committee (Hong Kong Yearbook 2003).⁸⁵

While the participation rate in full-time first degree programs was kept at the level of 18 percent, the overall post-secondary participation rate rose to 53 percent in December 2004, and then to 66 percent in August 2005, thanks to the rapid expansion of sub-degree programs, especially the new associate degree programs. There has been an unprecedented expansion of both self-financing associate degree programs and non-profit “community colleges” in Hong Kong since autumn 2000.

The Chief Executive of Hong Kong in “his 2000 Policy Address, the Chief Executive announced the Government's initiative to support the progressive increase in post-secondary education opportunities”. The Government’s planning target was that, by 2010, 60 percent of senior school leavers will have access to post-secondary education. To achieve this policy objective, the Government has introduced a series of support measures for both students and providers of post-secondary programs. Among others, they included the provision of student grants and loans, as well as an interest free start-up loan to post-secondary education institutions (EMB, 2005e). In this light, one could observe that given that Hong Kong had never had community colleges or associate degree programs, the Government has taken a bold initiative in pressing ahead the associate degree movement. It was reported that Hong Kong now had nearly 30 thousand associate degree holders (Takungpao Daily, 2 June, 2005).
Associate degree programs and the Hong Kong-styled community colleges

The key features of associate degree programs in Hong Kong are to “provide an enriched education at post-secondary level that prepares students for work, further study, leisure and active citizenship. It should also cultivate a spirit of lifelong learning and develop the student's ability to learn how to learn”. In terms of learning outcomes, these programs “should equip students with generic skills as well as specialized knowledge/skills that are sufficient to enable them to perform effectively at para-professional level, to further their studies in universities or to pursue professional studies. Generic skills here include languages, IT, interpersonal, communication, quantitative and analytical skills, as well as the ability to learn how to learn” (EMB, 2005e).

The common program structure of associate degree programs is that “AD can be a 2-year program normally admitting students with one A Level or an equivalent number of AS Level subjects; or a 3-year program admitting S5 students. For a 3-year curriculum, the first year program may take the form of either a standalone pre-AD or a Foundation course which forms an integral part of an AD program”. Associate degree programs are also open to mature students and generally adopt the principle of “lenient entry, stringent exit” (EMB, 2005e).

There is a basic difference between associate degree and higher diploma programs: “Both Associate Degree and Higher Diploma programs equip students with generic skills, knowledge in specialized disciplines and practical vocational skills. In general, Associate Degree programs put more emphasis on general education, while Higher Diploma and Professional Diploma courses are more vocational oriented” (EMB, 2005e).

The Government, education providers and students all are concerned about the quality assurance mechanism for this new category of qualifications. The self-accrediting associate degree programs are required to undergo their own internal quality assurance mechanism for their regular degree programs. Others must be validated by a recognized quality assurance agency, notably such as the Hong Kong Council for Academic Accreditation (EMB, 2005e).

Regarding the value of the associate degree qualifications, the credential is a standalone exit qualification for employment at the para-professional level. AD graduates can pursue further studies or professional development (on a full-time or part-time basis) or enter the job market. As an exit qualification for further studies, an associate degree award is normally equivalent to 50 percent of a 4-year university degree (North American model) or one-third of a 3-year university degree (British model). In other words, associate degree graduates can articulate to Year 3 of a 4-year university degree (North American model) or Year 2 of a 3-year university degree (British model). As an exit qualification for employment purpose in Hong Kong, Associate Degree is generally considered as equivalent to that of a Higher Diploma (EMB, 2005e).

The Government has taken the lead in announcing the acceptance of the qualifications of Associate Degree as one of the entry requirements for appointment to 13 civil service grades. The starting salaries range from HK$14,000 to HK$26,000 (EMB, 2005e). Nevertheless, a local daily reported that over the past years, the Government employed less than 10 associate degree graduates, and that there were few local job advertisements that addressed to associate degree graduates specifically (Takungpao Daily, 2 June, 2005).

In academic year 2004/05, there were 20 institutions offering full-time accredited self-financing sub-degree programs. The major institutions included the University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Baptist University, the Open University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the City University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Vocational Training Council, and Lingnan University (EMB, 2005e).⁸⁶ It is reported that there were also a number of new education providers which were undergoing academic accreditation (EMB, 2005e), and that more institutions would start to offer such programs in the next academic year (Singtao Daily, 17 May, 2005; Oriental Daily, 17 May, 2005; Takungpao Daily, 17 May, 2005).

Tuition fees of self-financing associate degree programs offered by the 20 local institutions ranged from $30,000 to $50,000 in academic year 2004/05. The Government had pledged “to ensure that no one would be deprived of further education opportunities because of the lack of means” (Li, 2005). Hence, the Government provides a package of financial assistance schemes to eligible students, including means-tested grant, low-interest loan (the ceiling of grant or low-interest loan for 2004/05 is $55,890), non-means-tested loan and travel subsidy. Details of the schemes can be obtained from the Student Financial Assistance Agency (EMB, 2005e). Clearly students in self-financing programs paid a much higher tuition than did their counterparts in publicly-funded bachelor’s degree programs at one of the eight mainstream universities.

Associate degree programs cover a variety of disciplines, including arts and social sciences, science and technology, information technology, business and administration, design and architectural studies etc. “Associate Degree” includes “Pre-Associate Degree programs”, and “Higher Diploma” includes “Higher Diploma programs”, “Honours Diploma programs” and “Professional Diploma programs”.

By 2005, and despite the rapid expansion of community colleges/associate degree programs, there was no indication that this self-financing form of education has reached a saturation point. In fact, a new Chinese University-Tung Wah Group Hospital Community College would accept its first intake of student in September, 2005, and HKU SPACE and Po Leung Kuk planned its opening of a joint community college in 2007.
The “Hong Kong Success Formula:” Government Support for the Market Mechanism

In contrast to U.S. public, comprehensive community colleges, Hong Kong-styled “two-year universities” are independent, self-financing and market-oriented in character. For regions and countries that no longer enjoy economic prosperity, but would like to expand post-secondary education opportunities for their youngsters, Hong Kong’s experience of non-profit-making two-year universities and self-financing associate degree programs could provide some positive lessons to borrow.

Nevertheless, Hong Kong’s success story is one of free market, meaning that none of government involvement or support is necessary or sensible. Quite the opposite, the government is expected to get involved in a reform movement of such scale fairly deeply, in both financial and policy terms. The government should play the role of regulator and facilitator to steer – not roll – the reform movement. And the rest is left to the market mechanism to do its job.

Right from the start, the Hong Kong Government has deeply engaged itself in Hong Kong’s associate degree/junior college movement. It has provided an array of financial support for post-secondary education institutions and sub-degree students.

For the post-secondary providers that are non-profit-making and provide full-time accredited post-secondary programs, the Government has provided its assistance and support in the following four aspects (EMB, 2005e):

• 
  Start-up loans. “The loan scheme operates along two stages: short-term and medium-term. In the first stage, a short-term loan is offered to enable post secondary course providers to: a, rent premises for two years; and b, cover basic refurbishment and equipment. In the second stage, a medium-term loan is offered to providers with good track record to: a, purchase or build permanent college premises; and b, cover refurbishment and equipment. For providers who have obtained the short-term loan, the medium-term loan will only cover requirements additional to those already financed by the short-term loan” (EMB, 2005e).⁸⁷
  
• 
  Land at nominal premium. Term of the Land Lease and Ten-year Service Agreement - The reserved sites have been granted to the successful applicants by private treaty at a nominal premium for an initial term of ten years and the lessees will be required to pay Government rent at 3 percent of the prevailing rateable value of the land from the date of the land grant. Other basic terms and conditions of the land grant will be determined by the Director of Lands. A lessee are required to enter into a ten-year service agreement with Government and be bound by the content of its proposal submitted in applying for the land grant which will include a development plan and the standards, quantity and quality targets of the education programs offered. A ten-year period is proposed since the post-secondary program provider would need time to construct the premises and to build up the student population. It also takes into account the maximum ten-year repayment period of the interest-free start-up loans. Subject to any terms and performance measures that both sides may agree, the Government may renew the service agreement (EMB, 2005e).⁸⁸
  
• 
  For example, the Government granted the Hong Kong Polytechnic University/Hong Kong Community College a site of 4,400 square meters, not far away from the University, and a medium-term loan of HK$424 million.
  
• 
  Accreditation grant. The Government has set aside $30 million for introducing a time-limited scheme to provide one-off accreditation grant to post-secondary education providers.⁸⁹ It could cost private institutions around $1,000,000 for accrediting two new courses. These high costs partly resulted in the bankruptcy of Hong Kong Learning Community College in May 2005. This was the first closure in Hong Kong community college history.
  
• 
  Reimbursement of government rents and rates.⁹⁰ Financial assistance for students. Back in October 2000, Chief Executive Mr. Tung announced clearly that the Government would provide grants and loans for students, “to ensure that no one would be deprived of further education opportunities because of the lack of means” (Li, 2005).
  

For students of all self-financing sub-degree programs, the Government provides the Financial Assistance Scheme for Post-secondary Students (FASP). To be eligible, applicants are required to be a registered full-time student, aged 25 or below, including sub-degree and above qualifications⁹¹ (Student Financial Assistance Agency 2005a):

• 
  Quality assurance of associate degree programs. Hong Kong education has long been known for its high standards. The accreditation mechanisms for associate degree programs in individual institutions are vigorous. The university-based community colleges are planning to set up a company to provide a joint accreditation standards and mechanism for its all member institutions.
  
• 
  Chairman of the Hong Kong Association of Career Masters and Guidance Masters Peter Chiu Wing-tak said associate degrees were an unreliable route to university because of the small number of places available to AD graduates, "What most AD students and their parents want is a full degree. They are not expecting the qualification as a preparation for employment. I'd ask students who want to pursue a degree locally to have second thoughts about doing an AD program.''
  
• 
  The University of Hong Kong accepted 138, but most were given first-year places despite assurances by the Education and Manpower Bureau that AD graduates should be able to enter the second year of university programs. (South China Morning Post, 30 August 2003)
  
• 
  Joint Quality Review Committee Limited and Quality Assurance. The Government, education providers and students all are concerned about the quality assurance mechanism for this new category of qualifications. The self-accrediting associate degree programs are required to undergo their own internal quality assurance mechanism for their regular degree programs. Others must be validated by a recognized quality assurance agency, notably such as the Hong Kong Council for Academic Accreditation.
  

In January 2005, Chairman of the Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions stated that the Federation had set up a working group to establish a Joint Quality Review Committee (JQRC). The proposed JQRC would focus on conducting periodic reviews, similar to the Teaching Learning Quality Process Review of Hong Kong’s University Grants Committee (UGC). It would concentrate on the quality assurance processes of those units offering self-financing sub-degree programs under the universities. It would also conduct assessment on individual programs within the context of the proposed Qualifications Framework (Young, 2005, p. 3).

Key Factors

Among the factors responsible for the rapid implementation of the Community college associate degree program in Hong Kong are:

1. 
   The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions because of the 20 education institutions offering full-time accredited self-financing sub-degree programs, 11 institutions are members of the Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions. The Federation plays a significant role in the associate degree/community college movement.
   
2. 
   Hong Kong’s higher education has long been under-supplied both under the British colonial rule and even under the post-1997 SAR government. Once the higher education supply was allowed to increase through a two-year community college structure, popular demand took over. In fact, most AD programs have been extensively oversubscribed.
   
3. 
   Third, University-community college’s self-accrediting improved the status of programs. Most community colleges which provide associate degree programs are extensions of their parent universities or their continuing education institutions, such as HKU SPACE Community College, CUHK, HKBU, etc.
   
4. 
   Globalization’s discourse of knowledge-based societies and an increasing globalized perspective propelled the idea that AD programs and qualifications. This is because the two-year AD programs teach more general education/liberal arts education, and essential generic skills training in English and Chinese languages, IT knowledge, reasoning and logics, and research methods.
   
5. 
   AD qualifications have a transfer possibility for a completion of a bachelor degree, after completing a top-up program. In contrast, three-year HD programs are more vocational-oriented, and generally are terminal qualifications.
   
6. 
   In 1997-2004, Hong Kong suffered economic downturn that once rendered the employment prospects of school-leavers dimmer than ever. Under such economic conditions, most S5 and S7 graduates would opt to stay on in school and CC/AD provided a path to a good job.
   
7. 
   The accreditation mechanisms for associate degree programs are rigorous. Eighth, more than 50 overseas universities recognized Hong Kong's associate degrees (SCMP, 6 August, 2004). Finally, the Government took the lead in announcing the acceptance of the qualifications of Associate Degree as one of the entry requirements for appointment to 13 civil service grades.⁹²
   

References

Education Commission (1999). Review of education system: framework for education reform. Learning for life. (September 1999). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

Education Commission (2000a). Education blueprint for the 21st Century. Review of education system. Reform Proposals. (May 2000). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

Education Commission (2000b). Reform proposals for the education system in Hong Kong: Learning for life, learning through life (September 2000). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

Education Commission (2002). Progress report on the education reform (1). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government. January, 2002.

Education Commission (2003). Progress report on the education reform (2). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government. June, 2003.

Education Commission (2004). Progress report on the education reform (3). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government. December, 2004.

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2001). A Paper prepared for Legislative Council panel on education, subcommittee on increase in post-secondary education opportunities, Paper No. CB (2) 1664/00-01 (02). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005a). Other education and training: Statistical

information. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=1213

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005b). Other education and training: Type of full-time

accredited self-financing programs by institutions for academic year 2004/05. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeID=2479

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005c). Other education and training: Type of full-time

accredited self-financing programs by institutions for academic year 2003/04. Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=1231

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005d). Replies to Written Questions in Legislative Council.

LCQ9: Pre-associate Degree Programmes, with Annex I and Annex II, as of March 9th, 2005. Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200503/09/03090231.htm

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005e). Local Post-secondary Courses. Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=225&langno=1

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005f). Local Post-secondary Courses. Retrieved August 8th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=225&langno=1

Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions (2005). Facts and figures. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from www.fce.org.hk/~fceorg/facts.htm

Hong Kong Yearbook 2002 (2002). Hong Kong Yearbook 2002. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://www.info.gov.hk/yearbook/2002/ehtml/e07-frame.htm

Hong Kong Yearbook 2003 (2003) Hong Kong Yearbook 2003. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://www.info.gov.hk/yearbook/2003/english/chapter07/07_04.html

HKU SPACE Community College (2005). Tuition and other fees. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://hkuspace.hku.hk/cc/eng/application/tuition.htm

Postiglione, G. (2003). Universities for knowledge economies: Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland

within globalization and decentralization. In K. H. Mok (Ed.), Centralization and decentralization: Educational reforms and changing governance in Chinese societies (pp. 157-172). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre.

Shive, G. (2003). Hong Kong's new post-secondary education marketplace. Journal of the American Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong (July 2003).

Steward R. Sutherland, Higher Education in Hong Kong, Report of the University Grants Committee,

commissioned by the Secretary for Education and Manpower. (Hong Kong: Government Printer, 2002:1).

Student Financial Assistance Agency (2005a). Financial Assistance Scheme for Post-secondary Students Summary Statistics. Retrieved April 18th, 2005, from

http://www.info.gov.hk/sfaa/en/statistics/fasp.htm

Townsend, B. (2002). Transfer rates: A problematic criterion for measuring the community college.

New Directions for Community Colleges, 117 (Spring 2002), 13-24.

Townsend, B. (2005). A cautionary view. In D. L. Floyd et al. (Eds.), The community college baccalaureate: Emerging trends and policy issues (pp. 1-8). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Townsend, B., & Twombly, S. B. (2001). Introduction. In B. Townsend & S. Twombly (Eds.), Community colleges: Policy in the future context (pp. ix-xiii). London: Ablex.

UGC (2002). Higher education in Hong Kong – Report of the University Grants Committee (March 2002), by Stewart R. Sutherland, Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Edinburgh.

UGC (2004a). Hong Kong higher education: To make a difference, to move with the times (January 2004).

UGC (2004b). Hong Kong higher education: Integration matters. A report of the institutional integration working party of the UGC (March 2004).

UGC (2005). Student numbers (full-time equivalent). Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from http://www.ugc.edu.hk/eng/ugc/stat/student_full.htm

Young, E. (2003). The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions Chairman’s

Report 2002-03. Hong Kong: Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, dated December, 2003.

Young, E. (2004a). PowerPoint File: Exportation of Higher Education: Policy Implications for Hong

Kong’s Positioning as a Centre of Excellence. The 10th Anniversary Conference of the Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, 3-4 December 2004, Hong Kong.

Young, E. (2004b). Paper: Exportation of Higher Education: Policy Implications for Hong Kong’s

Positioning as a Centre of Excellence. The 10th Anniversary Conference of the Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, 3-4 December 2004, Hong Kong.

Young, E. (2005). The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions Chairman’s Report 2003-04. Hong Kong: Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, dated January, 2005.

Yung, M. S. (2002a). Community college: A new born baby of the Hong Kong education system for the new millennium. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 1(2000 Spring).

Yung, M. S. (2002b). Hong Kong Higher Education: Policy and Ideas. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing. (In Chinese)

Notes

This research acknowledges the support of the University of Hong Kong Research Grants Committee.
Community Colleges and Further Education

in Ireland
Frank McMahon

Ireland is a small island off the western coast of Europe. The population of the whole island is about 5.5 million of whom just over 4 million live in the Republic of Ireland while the remainder live in Northern Ireland which is part of the UK. From the middle of the 19th century Ireland suffered a declining population, initially from famine in 1845 -47 but continuing almost continuously because of emigration until about 1990. It lost almost half its population which had exceeded 8 million in the mid 19th century.

The Republic of Ireland had been part of the UK throughout the 19th century but gained independence in 1922. There had been very little industrialisation and it remained economically dependent on the UK for most of the 20th century, mainly by supplying agricultural products for the UK which operated a cheap food policy. In 1973, Ireland joined the European Union on the same day as the UK and Denmark and thereby benefited from an increase in the prices gained for its agricultural produce. It also received generous development aid for infra-structural projects and for education and training. At the time of joining the EU, the average income in Ireland was approx 60% of the EU average; it has since risen to more than 100% of the average. Unemployment, which in the 1980s was 18%, is now less than 4% and Ireland has one of the fastest growing populations in Europe, partly through natural growth but also through net immigration. The phrase “Celtic Tiger” has been coined to describe an economy that has out-performed that of almost all OECD member states.
Education in Ireland

From the foundation of the state, Ireland had free primary education, the right to which is enshrined in its constitution, but did not introduce free secondary education until the end of the 1960s. As a result, many young Irish people left school at the end of the primary cycle and the levels of illiteracy and lack of ability in mathematics is still very high in the Irish age cohort of 55 – 65 years. In the year 2002, the percentage of the Irish population that had attained at least upper secondary education was only 37% (as compared with an OECD mean of 50%) for the 55-64 age cohort while it was 77% (as compared with an OECD mean of 65%) for the 25-34 age cohort (OECD Indicators, 2004). These statistics capture succinctly the catch up achieved by the Irish education system in the past four decades. Similar progress may be seen in the percentage of the population that has achieved a tertiary qualification. Only 14% of the 55-64 age cohort had such a qualification in 2002 but 37% of the 25-34 age cohort had achieved a tertiary qualification. The level for the older age cohort was below the mean for OECD countries but the figure for the younger age cohort was well ahead of the OECD mean. Notwithstanding the substantial progress made, there is still a problem of low attainment by approx 18% of young males who are not in education and have not attained upper secondary education.

The link between education level and unemployment was vividly illustrated by a table in the Green Paper on Adult Education. An analysis of that table shows that those in the labour force who had only primary school education represented 14.62 % of the population but 28.33% of the unemployed. In contrast, those with a third level education were 28.73% of the population but only 10.86% of the unemployed.
Labour Force by Educational levels, 1997

Educational Level	Employed	Unemployed	Total
Primary	14.62%	28.33%	16.04%
Lower Secondary	24.29%	34.99%	25.39%
Upper Secondary	32.11%	25.44%	31.42%
Third level	28.73%	10.86%	26.88%
Other	0.25%	0.38%	0.27%
TOTAL	100%	100%	100%

[Source: Green Paper on Adult Education, 1998]
One of the earliest pieces of education legislation in the new state was the Vocational Education Act, 1930 which established local education committees to control vocational education in each county and major city. These Vocational Education Committees (VEC) continue to exist to this day though their role has changed somewhat. Initially they were mainly concerned with providing Technical Schools as an alternative to the more academic secondary schools. Thus, a child who struggled academically might be advised to go to the Technical School which offered woodwork, mechanical drawing (in boys’ Technical Schools) and home economics, shorthand and typing (in girls’ Technical Schools). In the 1970s they began to offer the Leaving Certificate examination (equivalent of High School certificate in USA) and as Technical Schools became more academic, the secondary schools extended the range of subjects to include subjects such as Mechanical/Technical Drawing. In some towns, former Technical Schools and secondary schools were encouraged to merge by the Department of Education to form Community Colleges. Unlike their American namesakes, Irish community colleges are second level schools, catering for 12 to 18 year-olds.

While Vocational Education Committees catered mainly for second level pupils, they also inherited responsibility for some specialist colleges that pre-dated the 1930 Act. In Dublin city there were five colleges, founded on dates back to 1887 which offered specialist education in science and technology, art, commerce, women’s work (dressmaking, cookery and laundry) and music. The City of Dublin VEC embarked on an ambitious development of these colleges, adding a sixth college, as well as developing the twenty-two second-level schools under its remit. As a result of this development, the Colleges went on to become the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), of which more anon. While the tertiary level colleges flourished with a regional and a national in-take of students, the second level schools were subject to the vagaries of the demographics of their local areas. Some found themselves without adequate student numbers by the 1970s and had to develop a new role for themselves as the providers of post-Leaving Certificate courses (PLCs). These courses were mainly one-year or two-year courses of a vocational character which were attractive to students whose Leaving Certificate performance was not good enough to win them a place in higher education.

In 1970, the government decided to give a major boost to technological education by the founding of a National Institute of Education in Limerick and Regional Technical Colleges in twelve locations around the country. Dublin was not included in this initiative because it already had the technological colleges which were destined to become the DIT. The new RTCs were generally organised into three separate schools or departments: Engineering, Science and Business/Humanities and they offered a range of programmes, mainly of two-year or three year duration in each of the three schools. These programmes led to the award of National Certificates (2-year) or National Diplomas (3-year). In contrast to the RTCs, the NIHE concentrated mainly on degree-level programmes. In 1980 a second NIHE was opened in Dublin. In 1986, a committee was appointed by the government to review technological education in Ireland. In its report it recommended that the two NIHEs should be given university status and this was done in 1989.

In 1992, two acts were passed by the Irish parliament; the Dublin Institute of Technology Act to merge the technological colleges in Dublin city which were operating under the aegis of the City of Dublin VEC and the Regional Technical Colleges Act to provide a new legislative basis for the RTCs that had been established during the 1970s under the aegis of local VECs. While there are many similarities between the two acts, a major difference was that the DIT was given awarding powers while the RTCs were to receive their awards from a National Council for Educational Awards (NCEA). That position continues to this day, though some RTCs (re-titled Institutes of Technology) have been given delegated power to make some awards by the Higher Education and Training Council (the successor to the NCEA).

A government White Paper on Education in 1995 confirmed the respective roles of DIT and the RTCs but did not address the growing role of the colleges that remained under the control of the VECs. As noted above, these colleges were gradually developing their role of providing PLC programmes but there was no adequate provision in legislation for such programmes. When Irish commentators describe secondary and higher education as second level and third level respectively, the PLC programmes are sometimes described as being at two-and –a-half level. They are placed awkwardly between the second and third level sectors. In recent years that sector has been labelled the Further Education sector and the next section provides some analysis of its growth, its contribution as well as some of the problems it faces.
Further Education Sector

Whereas most development in Irish education took place within a legislative framework, the Further Education (FE) sector grew outside the legislative framework and government is now trying to catch up, post hoc. Many of the PLC programmes developed since 1985 to fill spare capacity in second-level schools were highly successful and encouraged the VECs to designate some of their colleges as Further Education colleges. The number of students participating in PLC programmes increased from 12,000 in 1989/90 to over 24,000 in 1999/00. Following a commitment in a White Paper on Adult Education (2000), the government established a Steering Group to review the provision of PLC programmes to “Examine and make recommendations as necessary regarding the organisational, support, development, technical and administrative structures and resources in schools and colleges with large PLC provision having regard to good practice in related areas across the system and in other countries”. The membership of the Steering Group included representatives of the Department of Education & Science, VECs (college management) and teachers’ unions. Large PLC provision was defined as over 150 students in a school or college.

An interim report from the Steering Group highlighted the problems that beset the FE sector, arising mainly from the origins of the sector in the second-level sector:

• 
  Physical facilities are not good and there is inadequate space
  
• 
  There is a lack of sufficient equipment, especially computers for project work
  
• 
  There is little “student experience” because of lack of student social space
  
• 
  The co-existence of second-level and FE students in the one building leads to excessive supervision of FE students by teachers because of the extension of teachers’ duty of care to younger pupils to FE students
  
• 
  The teaching load of staff is set at second level norms, which is excessive for those teaching FE
  
• 
  Management and Administrative staffing is inadequate for FE provision
  

Addressing these problems would have significant resource implications for the government. Reducing teaching loads of staff (typically from 22 to 16 hours per week), adding managerial, technician and administrative staff, improving library and computing facilities, upgrading buildings and introducing greater support services all involve extra expenditure by the Department of Education and Science. To date, the Department and the Department of Finance remain to be convinced of the merits of the case. But in the meantime, the FE sector continues to grow and the student population in the sector reached 28,588 in 2004 (Dept of Education & Science Annual Report, 2004). The significance of this figure can be gauged when it is compared with the total enrolment in third-level education which was 134,000 in 2004.

When the OECD undertook a review of higher education in Ireland, its report did not mention PLC programmes as the terms of reference provided by the Government of Ireland did not extend to Further Education (OECD Review of Higher Education in Ireland, 2004).

In addition to the PLC programmes, the Further Education sector is responsible for other programmes such as the Youth Reach (3258 students), Senior Traveller Training (1076 students), Back to Education programmes (16,155 students) and Back to Education Community programmes (2,277 students) (Department of Education and Science, 2004).