Global Development
Participation in Higher Education
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Apprenticeship
- National Qualifications Authority of Ireland
- European Dimension
- Some Current Issues for Irish Education
- Institutions in Transition: The “Community Colleges” of Japan
- The “Community Colleges” of Japan
- Various pathways
- Historical Background
- The Junior Colleges
| Participation in Higher Education
The advantages conferred by higher education have long been recognised in Ireland and have led to a gradual increase in Ireland’s participation rate in higher education. It grew from 20% in 1980, to 25% in 1986, 36% in 1992 and 46% in 1998 (White, 2001). Number of Students Receiving Fulltime Higher Education by Gender and Type of Institution (2002/2003)
One feature of the table is the majority of female students in HEA funded colleges (mainly universities) but especially in Teacher training. Not shown in this table because they are not regarded as full-time students are apprentices who number about 28,000 in total and are almost all male. The technological colleges offer two-year programmes (higher certificates), three year programmes (ordinary degrees) and four year programmes (honours degrees). The universities offer mainly honours degrees, with some provision for ordinary degrees.
Ireland has long espoused the apprenticeship approach to the training of skilled crafts persons. Generally, apprenticeship is associated with the training of young people by attaching them to a member of the particular profession or a company deemed fit to train others. As an approach to training, it has its roots in the medieval system of indenturing a trainee to a master for a pre-determined number of years while he learned his craft. At the foundation of the state, Ireland had a system of technical education that involved long apprenticeship to a master (often seven years) and attendance at day release courses in technical schools. As O’Connor and Harvey have pointed out, the system suffered the twin disadvantages that attendance at the classes was voluntary and in any event classes were available only in urban areas. The Apprenticeship Act, 1931 gave the government the power to designate trades and establish apprenticeship committees to make rules in respect of a designated trade. These rules covered duration of the apprenticeship, conditions of employment including rates of pay and arrangements for training. The Apprenticeship Committees could request VECs to provide to provide courses for apprentices. While this act improved matters, it continued the weakness that time served was a key feature of apprenticeship, rather than competency demonstrated. A new Industrial Training Authority, known as AnCO from the Irish form of its name, was established in 1967 to introduce more formalised training including both on the job and off the job phases. The establishment of Regional Technical Colleges gave an important resource to the off-the-job phases as did the availability after 1973 of EU funding for the construction and operation of training centres. Finally, a standards based apprenticeship system was introduced in 1991 by FAS, the successor Training Authority to AnCO. The new system is based on seven phases of which four (1, 3, 5 and 7) are done on the job while phase 2 is done in a training centre and phases 4 and 6 are done in an Institute of Technology. For most trades, the phases (4 and 6) in the Institute of Technology are 11 weeks each while phase 2 usually lasts for 22 weeks in a Training Centre. While there has been reasonable satisfaction with the current arrangements, there is a growing fear that the training is not keeping pace with the rate of innovation in industry. For example, computer-aided design and manufacturing may make some craft skills obsolete but this is not yet reflected in apprenticeship programmes. Recruitment to apprenticeship has been very strong in recent years as evidenced by the table below. One trade that has suffered noticeably is printing where changes in technology seem to have had a major impact on recruitment to the trade. Annual Total Number of Apprentices
A feature of Apprenticeship has been its dominance by male apprentices. Despite efforts to encourage female trainees, over 90% of the in-take is male. This is due to some extent to the trades that have been designated (Electricians, Construction Trades, Sheet Metal Working, etc) while other occupations that are female-dominated are not designated (nursing, hairdressing, etc). National Qualifications Authority of Ireland Through the Qualifications (Education and Training) Act, 1999 the government established in 2001 a National Qualifications Authority (NQAI) with three main tasks:
Following extensive consultation, the NQAI launched the National Framework of Qualifications in October 2003. This framework is based on 10 levels and is designed to encompass all educational and training awards up to doctorate (level 10). All education providers are committed to the implementation of the framework and its existence is gradually gathering credibility with employers. The NQAI is also committed to facilitating access, transfer and progression and has published its policy. Its approach to policy development has put strong emphasis on consultation with all stakeholders and the publication of draft policies on its website to encourage debate and submission of comments. Finally, the NQAI has commissioned a review of the effectiveness of quality assurance in DIT (carried out by the European Universities Association) and is currently completing a review of the Higher Education and Training Awards Council. The website of NQAI gives a good deal of information on its activities and policies (www.nqai.ie). European Dimension In June of 1999, the Ministers of Education from 29 European countries signed the Bologna Declaration, committing themselves to the creation of a European Higher Education Area (EHEA). Every two years the Ministers meet to review progress and to set new goals that lead to the ultimate objective. Thus, they have met in Prague (2001), Berlin (2003) and Bergen (2005) and are planning to meet in London in 2007. The number of countries participating has grown to forty-five. It now seems likely that the EHEA will indeed be created by 2010, with each of the forty-five member states operating in accordance with the parameters laid down by the Ministers. This will include the provision of Bachelor, Masters and Doctoral degree cycles, a national framework of qualifications in each state and an over-arching European framework. All universities will use the same credit accumulation and transfer system (ECTS), thereby facilitating increased mobility of students within Europe. Already, the EU has provided greatly enhanced funding for student mobility and in 2005 Irish institutions of higher education (HEIs) were asked to double the number of incoming and outgoing students on Erasmus/Socrates programmes. The new EHEA will also facilitate the mobility of workers, at least within the twenty-five member states of the EU, because of increased recognition of awards. Shortages of skilled manpower in one EU state can be met by the migration of skilled staff from other EU states. Heads of Government in EU states committed themselves to the so-called Lisbon Strategy in March 2000 to making Europe the most competitive economy in the world. The modern Knowledge Economy needs a growing flow of highly skilled workers and progress towards the achievement of the strategy is monitored. In 2001 the proportion of students graduating in mathematics, science or technology was higher in the EU at 24% than in the USA at 17% or Japan at 22% but the EU had fewer researchers in the labour market. Ireland increased its number of technical graduates from 14,500 to 15,700 in the period 2000 to 2003, giving it over 30%. This placed Ireland in a group of four EU countries to exceed 30%, the others being Spain, Finland and the Czech Republic while the EU average had grown to 26%. One aspect of the Bologna Process has been the speeding-up of the flow of graduates from European universities. In countries where traditionally students spent fives years on their first degree (for example Czech Republic, Finland, Germany and Italy), new Bachelor degree programmes have been introduced, generally of three years duration. It was a stipulation of the Bologna Declaration that the Bachelor degree programmes “must have relevance to the labour market”. Thus, Europe now seeks to have a competitive advantage over other advanced economies by having a better alignment between the output of universities and the needs of industry. This new EHEA may well make Europe more attractive to non-European students who hitherto have flocked to Australia and the USA. Since such students pay the full economic tuition fee, their presence in Europe in increased numbers will boost the finances of European universities.
Higher education in universities and institutes of technology is almost free (students pay €775 per annum) but there have been various proposals to re-introduce fees which were abolished in the mid 1990s. For example, the OECD Reviewers in 2004 favoured the re-introduction of fees as a means of improving the finances of the higher education institutions but the government decided against fees. Although this remains government policy (and most likely the policy of opposition parties since they abolished the fees in the first place), the issue re-surfaces periodically (for example, it is questioned whether the benefit goes mainly to middle class families) and is likely to continue to do so. Further education colleges are funded largely as second level schools but operate increasingly at higher level. Also, the articulation between the programmes operated by the FE colleges and programmes in universities and institutes of technology is not well developed. Certainly it does not compare favourably with arrangements between community colleges and universities in the USA. The development of the National Framework of Qualifications has been well received but has highlighted a break in progression opportunities from apprenticeship and PLC qualifications which must be addressed. The nature of the binary divide between universities and institutes of technology is coming under strain. In particular, the Dublin Institute of Technology occupies an anomalous position since it has full awarding powers, up to PhD, is a member of the European University Association and the International Association of Universities but is not designated as a university in Ireland.
Department of Education (1998) Green Paper: Adult Education in an Era of Learning, Dublin, The Stationery Office. Department of Education (2000) Learning for Life: White Paper on Adult Education, Dublin, The Stationery Office. Department of Education and science (2004) Annual Report, website www.education.ie/ O’Connor, Len and Harvey, Noel (2001) Apprenticeship Training in Ireland, Journal of Industrial Training, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp 332-342. OECD (2004) Education at a Glance, OECD Indicators 2004, Paris, OECD. OECD (2004) Review of Higher Education in Ireland, Paris, OECD. White, Tony (2001) Investing in People, Higher Education in Ireland from 1960 to 2000, Dublin, Institute of Public Administration. Institutions in Transition: The “Community Colleges” of Japan Joyce S. Tsunoda Yasuko Iida In Japan there seems to be a preference for things that are small, discrete, yet reflect what one might describe as “patterned regularity”. Take for example Japanese food that many are treated to when visiting Japan: “sushi”, “kaiseki ryori”, “teishoku”. Each dish is small in serving size, and is distinguished by its singularly special flavor and appealing presentation. Yet there is a patterned regularity about such traditional Japanese cuisine, for example, in the specific ingredients for each dish, the appropriate groupings of the dishes, and even in the order in which the dishes are to be served. This patterned regularity becomes the social norm, and while creative variations of the norms are tried from time to time, basic patterns appear to remain unaltered. This analogy could be applied to “community college comparable” institutions, especially to those known as “tanki daigaku” or junior colleges. The approach used in this chapter will be to look at case studies of three specific institutions: two of which began as junior colleges and one as a specialized vocational school. Their respective paths of formation, development and current status will be described, against the backdrop of the overall history of higher education in Japan, as well as within the context of some of the current realities confronting Japan of the 21st century. The “Community Colleges” of Japan Nomenclature is all important. None of the institutions are officially called “community colleges”, even though individually and collectively, they carry out the functions of community colleges. The categories of institutions considered to be comparable to the “community colleges” are junior colleges, professional training colleges, and colleges of technology. A word about vocational-technical education in Japan may be in order. At first glance the different names or designations used for these institutions can be confusing. According to official terminology, the post-secondary technical schools are referred to as “professional training colleges” or as “specialized training colleges” (senmon gakko or senshuu gakko senmonkatei). These professional training colleges accept high school graduates or students with certification equivalency of high school graduation, and offer two to three years of professional training depending on the field. In certain fields, the training may require 4 years or longer. There are nearly 3000 of these professional training schools nationwide. Then there are the “colleges of technology” (koutou-senmon gakko). These enroll students directly from middle schools (chuu gakko) and provide five years of focused training in fields of engineering-related technology. There are 63 colleges of technology, located in various regions of Japan. Eighty- seven percent of these colleges of technology are classified as national institutions meaning that their funding comes directly from the national government. In addition, there are also technical high schools (koutou senshuu gakkou). These will not be included as part of this chapter. It should be noted that the nomenclature of institutions reflect their primary source of funding, and the way in which the funds flow from public coffers to the institutions. Publicly funded institutions are called either “national” (kokuritsu) or “public” (kouritsu). The “nationals” receive their funding directly from the central government, while the “publics” receive their funding through local, i.e. prefecture or municipal, governments. The local governments use their discretion in distributing, for educational purposes, funds allocated to them from the national government as well as from their own local taxes. The “private” institutions (shiritsu) also receive subsidies from national tax revenues but do so through an agency called the Promotion and Mutual Aid Corporation for Private Schools of Japan (Nippon Shiritsu-Gakko Shinkou-Kyousai Jigyoudan). These tax-based subsidies vary, but currently amount to roughly ten percent of the operating
The flow diagram in Chart I is an attempt to simplify the varied paths from high school to higher education that are available to the Japanese students today. According to the 2003 report of the Ministry of Education, the percentages of high school graduates who apply for admission to universities and junior colleges are 47.3% and 8.3% respectively, and the acceptance rates are: universities 41.3% and junior colleges 7.7%. In addition, nearly 23% of high school graduates enter professional training colleges and 0.8%, colleges of technology. It appears, therefore, that most high school graduates in Japan today have the opportunity to enter the traditional institutions of higher education, and others have choices of post-secondary professional training and education. 
Historical Background American historian John W. Dowar in his Pulitzer Prize winning book, “Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II” states: Never had a genuinely democratic revolution been associated with military dictatorship…which, when all was said and done, is what McArthur’s command was.” (p.81-82) Current Japanese education system was launched during this period of occupied Japan. The enactment of the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law in 1947 established the 6-3-3-4 national education system and promoted the principle of “all people’s right to receive an equal education correspondent to their abilities, as provided by law (p.392). Under the new legislation, upper secondary schools were established in 1948, and a new system for higher education, referred to as the “university system” was established in 1949. Then existing vocational training schools were placed under this newly reorganized “university system” resulting in a national network of 18 public and 87 private colleges/universities and 69 national universities. When many of the vocational schools failed to meet the academic standards of the “university system”, a new category of institution, the junior colleges, was authorized as a provisional measure. Thus in 1950, 17 public and 132 private junior colleges were launched. In 1964, through an amendment to the School Enactment Law, the junior colleges were given permanent status and were recognized as official part of the Japanese university (higher education) system. This permanent status enabled the junior colleges to receive government subsidies for programs and research. The Junior Colleges The period of 1960s and 1970s saw a rapid growth in both the number of and enrollment in the junior colleges, some as free-standing colleges and others as two-year colleges within organizational structure of universities. In the 1970s nearly one out of four high school graduates advanced to either university or junior colleges (males, 29.2%, females, 17.7%) as compared to an overall rate of ten percent in 1960. This “going- rate” increased to 37.4% by 1980 with remarkable increase in females to a rate of 33.3%. Junior colleges contributed to this increased female participation in higher education. As a matter of fact, attending junior colleges, dubbed “hanayome gakko” (bridal preparatory schools), was the socially appropriate route for young girls who were ultimately expected to assume the traditional roles of marriage and motherhood. By the late 1980s Japan’s economic faltered and at the same time the number of college applicants began to decline due to continuing downward trend in birthrate. There were also other factors affecting junior colleges enrollment and program offerings. Increasing number of girls opted to go directly from high school to four-year institutions, many of which welcomed these high school graduates as an important source of their enrollment. The image of junior colleges as “bridal training schools” gradually disappeared, and many junior colleges began to offer more vocationally oriented programs that prepared graduates for employment in fields open for women, such as early childhood education, dietetics, nursing, allied health, and expanded to information and management sciences, human services, foreign language skills to meet changing employment opportunities. Efforts to internationalize the junior college environment led to establishment of study abroad and other cooperative relationships with foreign institutions, including formal relationships with AACC and various American community colleges. During the late 1980s to mid-1990s when student exchanges and visits between the U.S. community colleges and Japan’s junior colleges were at their peak, there were nearly 500 junior colleges throughout Japan. Approximately fifty of these were public junior colleges, ten or so affiliated with national universities (kokuritsu) and the remaining four hundred or so were private (gakkou houjin) junior colleges. Two national associations, the Japan Association of Public Junior Colleges and the Association of Private Junior Colleges of Japan, were formed in 1951. These two associations co-exist to this day and serve as the coordinating headquarters for each group of junior colleges. In most cases, the public junior colleges are relatively small in size with less than 500 students and has specialized programmatic offerings, such as a college of nursing or college of commerce. Private junior colleges tend to be somewhat larger in enrollment and are often more comprehensive in their programmatic offerings. Both the private and public junior colleges require entrance examinations, and the traditional roles of faculty in research appear to remain the valued norm. The concept of “open door” is not part of the lexicon of Japanese junior colleges. Yüklə 1,63 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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