Islamic land

.
[FN114]. Joel Greenberg, A Group Uproots Arabs to Plant Jews, N.Y. Times, Aug. 2, 1998, sect. 1, at 18.
[FN115]. Notably the Jerusalem Reclamation Project and Aterim Cohanim settler association. See Elli Wohlgelernter, Moskowitz plans donors' visit to boost the Right, Jerusalem Post, Jan. 1, 1999, at 1.
[FN116]. Alexandre Kedar, The Legal Transformation of Ethnic Geography: Israeli Law and the Palestinian Landholder 1948-1967, 33 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 924 (2001); but see H.C. 6698/95, Qaadan v. Israel Lands Authority, 54(1) P.D. 258 (2000) and Alexandre Kedar, "A First Step in a Difficult and Sensitive Road": Preliminary Observations on Qaadan v. Katzir, 16 Bull. Isr. Stud. 1 (2000), available at ; but see, Terry Rempel, The Significance of Israel's Partial Annexation of East Jerusalem, 51 Middle E.J. 520 (1997) (regarding the legal structure of annexed East Jerusalem).
[FN117]. Stelio Séferiadès, L'échange des populations, 24 Rec. des cours 308 (1928 IV).
[FN118]. Justus R. Weiner, The Palestinian Refugees' 'Right to Return' and the Peace Process, 20 B.C.L. Rev. 1 (1997); K.R. Radley, The Palestinian Refugees: The Right to Return in International Law, 72 Am. J. Int'l L. 586 (1978); Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law 91-93 (2d ed. 1996).
[FN119]. Tunis and Morocco Nationality Decrees, 1423 P.C.I.J., Ser. B, No. 4; Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws, Apr. 12, 1930, L.N. Doc. C. 24 m. 13, 1931, 179 L.N.T.S. 89, No. 4137 (1937).
[FN120]. Liechtenstein v. Guatemala (Nottebohm case) (2d phase), ICJ, at 4. (1955),
[FN121]. Decree-law No. 3370 of Sept. 20/23 1955, modified by laws No. 4532 of Aug. 17, 1966, No. 481 of July 23/24, 1968, No. 610 of Aug. 17/21, 1970, No. 1250 of Apr. 5, 1982, No. 1438 of Mar. 5/6, 1984. art. 9(14), Law No. 2623 of June 24, 1998 abrogated art. 19 of the Nationality Code which permitted such administrative annulment of nationality of persons who not of "Greek ethnicity" . Cf.case of Moustafa Tsolak, Greek national resident in Germany for more than ten years when he was deprived in 1981 of his nationality for "refusal of military inscription", a case over which the European Council declined competence. Written question No. 1788/90, O.J.E.C., Dec. 24, 1990, C-325/42. The Council emphasized its incompetence in matters of the grant and withdrawal of nationality, even in the face of Community provisions on the free movement of citizens, in response to question No. 628/92, July 3, 1992, O.J.E.C., Aug. 10, 1992, C-202/58; and that of Hussein Ramadanoglou, divested of his Greek nationality in 1992 on the basis of departure from the country without the intent to return, under circumstances where he had taken advantage of his Community right of establishment in Germany, Press release of June 12, 1996 of Greek Helsinki Monitor & Minority Rights Group.
[FN122]. R. v. Secretary of State for the F.C.O., ex p. Bancoult, [2001] Q.B. 1067 (D.C.).
[FN123]. Michael Curtis, International Law and the Territories, 32 Harv. Int'l L.J. 457 (1991), in which the author attacks for "selective and intemperate language" and "animus that exceeds the usual boundaries of scholarly discourse" the article by Richard A. Falk & Burns H. Weston, The Relevance of International Law to Palestinian Rights in the West Bank and Gaza: In Legal Defense of the Intifada, 32 Harv. Int'l L.J. 129 (1991).
[FN124]. Lex Takkenberg, The Status of Palestinian Refugees in International Law 12-18 (1998) (overview); Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem 7-9, 74-83, 138-54, 162-63 (2001) (new appraisal from Western and Israeli archives); Elias Sanbar, Palestine 1948: l'expulsion 147-91 (1984) (Palestinian argument); Efraim Karsh, Were the Palestinians Expelled?, 110 Commentary, Jul.-Aug. 2000, at 29.
[FN125]. Gelber, Palestine 1948 298-302 (2001).
[FN126]. Joseph H.H. Weiler, Israel, the Territories and International Law: When Doves are Hawks, in Israel Among the Nations: International and Comparative Law Perspectives on Israel's 50th Anniversary 381 (Alred E. Kellerman et al. eds., 1998).
[FN127]. This issue was debated in relation to concessions granted to George Speight following his overthrow of the Fiji government in 2000.
[FN128]. See The Arab-Israeli Conflict (John Norton Moore ed., 1974), published by Princeton U. Press.
[FN129]. Julius Stone, Israel and Palestine: Assault on the Law of Nations (1981); cf. Chairman's statement, U.N. Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People, 220th Meeting, U.N. Doc. A/AC.183/SR.220 (1996) ("Contrary to the views of certain delegations, the Committee had never shown any bias in its evaluation of the Palestinian problem.")
[FN130]. Muhammad Y. Muslih, in The Origins of Palestinian Nationalism (1988) argues that "the fragmentation of the Arab nationalist groups in Faysal's Arab government in Damascus between 1918 and 1920 was a major factor which significantly contributed to the split of the Arab nationalist movement along provincial lines in 1920." He maintains that it was land ownership and government service that had distinguished the great notable families of Palestine. These are attributes that were largely lost with the creation of the State of Israel. Until Oslo II no Palestinian entity possessed the educational and propaganda facilities used by other former Ottoman territories to inculcate national identity.
[FN131]. Number provided in a communication from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1999). The Israeli Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem for 2000 reports the Arab population of East Jerusalem as 208,700. On the status of East Jerusalem and its inhabitants, see Esther Rosalind Cohen, Human Rights in the Israeli-occupied Territories, 1967-1982 38-42 (1985).
[FN132]. Thus: Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978, Pub. L. 95-608, title I, Sec. 101, Nov. 8, 1978, 92 Stat. 3071, 25 U.S.C. ß 1911 (2000); Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield, 490 U.S. 30 (1989); In the Matter of the Guardianship of Q.G.M., a minor, 808 P.2d 684 (Okl. 1991).
[FN133]. Robert Fisk, Exodus: Christians of the Arab world flee their Biblical homeland, Independent (London), Sept. 24, 1997, at 11.
[FN134]. Education provisions: Commission Regulation 1612/68, 1968, OJ, English Special Edition 1968 (II), at 475), Casagrande v. Landeshauptstadt München, 1974 E.C.R. 773, Gravier v. City of Liège, 1985 E.C.R. 593; Forcheri v. Belgian State, [1983] E.C.R. 2323; Blaizot v. Université de Liège, 1988 E.C.R. 379; Echternach & Moritz, 1989 E.C.R. 723; Commission v. Belgium, 1996 E.C.R. I-4307; Landesamt für Ausbildungsförderung Nordrhein-Westfalen v. Gaal, 1995 E.C.R. I-1031; Di Leo v. Land Berlin, 1990 E.C.R. I-4185; Brown v. Secretary of State for Scotland, 1988 E.C.R. 3205.
[FN135]. Refugee Convention, Geneva, July 28, 1951, 189 U.N.T.S. 137, No. 2545 (1954), art. 12-24; James C. Hathaway & Anne K. Cusick, Refugee Rights are not Negotiable, 14 Geo. Immigr. L.J. 481, 485 (2000) (socio-economic rights).
[FN136]. Jacob Robinson, Were the Minority Treaties a Failure? (1943).
[FN137]. Native Hawaiian language promotion under Pub. L. 89-10, 79 Stat. 27, amended by Pub. L. 103-382, 108 Stat. 3800, 20 U.S.C. ß 7905 (2000); Native American language policy, Pub.L. 101-477, 104 Stat. 1155, 25 U.S.C. ß 2903 (2000).
[FN138]. Compare the mass emigration to the United States of Hmong tribe members from Laos, supporters of the U.S. during the Vietnam War. On their difficulty assimilating in U.S. society, see Tim Weiner, Many Laotians in U.S. Find Their Hopes Betrayed, N.Y. Times, Dec. 27, 1997, at A1.
[FN139]. Aponno v. Netherlands (Amboinese Soldiers' case), H.R., 22 Jan. 1951, N.J. 217, 17 I.L.R. 199 (Neth.); cf. In re Hehanussa, Ct. App. The Hague, Nov. 6, 1952, 19 I.L.R. 337 (Amboinese resident in Netherlands and renouncing Indonesian nationality held not entitled to Dutch nationality under terms of independence agreement).
[FN140]. The U.S. accepted no continuing obligation to accept Hmong asylum seekers: Yang v. INS, 79 F.3d 932 (9th Cir. 1996) (denying asylum because of prior firm resettlement in France).
[FN141]. Compare "temporary allegiance": The Pizarro, 15 U.S. (2 Wheat.) 227, 246 (1817).
[FN142]. R.F.A. van den Bedem, Motives for Naturalization (1993).
[FN143]. Exceptions include two cases of indigenous groups converted to Catholicism, the first those recruited by Cardinal Lavigerie at Sainte-Monique and at Saint-Cyprien-des-Attafs during the famine of 1865-1868, the second the Kabyles of Beni Ouadias (Djurdjura) converted by the White Fathers. 1 Charles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine 440-42 (1964).
[FN144]. "Whoever changes his Islamic religion, kill him." Sahih Al-Bukhari, 9:57. For exegesis of this hadith in relation to Qur'an 2:256 ("no compulsion in Islam") see S. A. Rahman, Punishment of Apostasy in Islam 16-25 (1972); Mohamed S.El-Awa, Punishment in Islamic Law: A Comparative Study (1982); Sami A. Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, Salman Rushdie et l'iceberg: consequences pénales et politiques de l'apostasie en droit musulman et arabe, in Festschrift für Jan Stepan 255 (Jarmila Bednarikova & Frank C. Chapman eds., 1994).
[FN145]. 2 George Young, Corps de droit ottoman 11-12 (1905).
[FN146]. Constitution of India, Nov. 26, 1949, art. 25-28; 1 H.N. Seervai, Constitutional Law of India: A Critical Commentary, 1259-1308 (4th ed. 1999); Tahir Mahmood, Islamic Law and State Legislation on Religious Conversion in India, in Islam and Public Law 159 (Chibli Maslatt ed. 1993).
[FN147]. Tewfik v. Elias, Trib. mixte d'Egypte, C.A. (3d Ch.) Dec. 18, 1923, Gaz. trib. mixtes, XIV, at 171 (informal translation) (Succession of a Coptic Christian converted to Islam in order to marry a second wife; after having repudiated her he reconverted to Christianity).
[FN148]. Rudolph Peters & Gert J.J. de Vries, Apostasy in Islam, 17 Die Welt des Islams 1 (1968); Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, The Islamic Law of Apostasy and its Modern Applicability, 16 Religion 197 (1986) (conviction and execution in the Sudan of Mahmoud Muhammad Taha); David F. Forte, Apostasy and Blasphemy in Pakistan, 10 Conn. J. Int'l. L. 27 (1994); Donna E. Arzt, Religious Human Rights in Muslim States of the Middle East and North Africa, 10 Emory Int'l L. Rev. 139 (1996); but compare Minister for Home Affairs v. Jamaluddin bin Othman, [1990] L.R.C. (Const.) 380 (professing Christianity in Malaysia held not a violation of Internal Security Act, 1960).
[FN149]. Recalling that adoption does not exist in Islam and has been recognized under the laws of only one Muslim jurisdiction, Tunisia, Law No. 58- 27 of Mar. 4, 1958.
[FN150]. Thus rendering all the more shocking and threatening to the religious establishment recent discoveries of early Qur'anic fragments, which could, by revising history and destabilizing the principle of ijtihad, weaken the foundations of the doctrine of immutability. Christoph Luxenberg, Die syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran: ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Koransprache (2000); The Origins of the Koran (Ibn Warraq ed., 1998); Alexander Stille, Scholars Are Quietly Offering New Theories of the Koran, N.Y. Times, Mar. 2, 2002, at A1; Toby Lester, What Is the Koran, Atlantic Monthly, Jan. 1999, at 43.
[FN151]. Bastanipour v. Immigration and Naturalization Service, 980 F.2d 1129 (7th Cir. 1992) (granting petition of Iranian convert); cf. R. v. Home Secretary ex p. Kazmi, [1994] Imm. A.R. 94 (denying petition of Pakistani convert to Christianity based on Home Office finding that instances of Pakistani discrimination were "not commonplace").
[FN152]. Sami Awad Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, L'impact de la relgion sur l'ordre juridique, cas de l'Egypte, non-musulmans en pays d'Islam 256 (1979) (informal translation); similarly, Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law 131-32 (1964).
[FN153]. In re Marriage of Red Fox, 23 Or. App. 393, 542 P.2d 918 (1975) (Native American); Dame N'Guyen Thi An v. N'Guyen Can, Seine, (1st Ch.), Oct. 26, 1967, 96 Clunet 406 (1969), note Ph. K.; District Stanleyville, Sept. 21, 1953, J.T.O., 1954, at 136, note G.M.; Johan M. Pauwels, Répertoire de droit coutumier congolais 70 (1970); but see Aning v. Kingful, [1980] G.L.R. 404 (Ghana, distinguishing between customary and civil marriage); In re Bethell, (1887) 38 Ch.D. 220, 234 (Chancery 1887) (Eng.) (Bechuanaland, mixed marriage; rejected); Cousin de Lavallière v. de la Bernardie, Req., Mar. 14, 1933, 1934-I Sirey 161, report Pilon, note Solus (Guinea, mixed plural marriage; rejected).
[FN154]. Christian Bruschi, La nationalité dans le droit colonial, 18 Procès, Cahiers d'analyse pol. et jur. 29 (1988).
[FN155]. E.g., Decree of July 29, 1887, J.O.R.F., Aug. 25, 1887; decree of Oct. 3, 1910, J.O.R.F., Oct. 8, 1910 (Tunisia); decree of Apr. 29, 1920, J.O.R.F., May 2,1920 (Morocco). Natives of a protectorate could be considered nationals of the protecting state for some purposes, National Bank of Egypt v. Austro-Hungarian Bank, Anglo-Austrian Mixed Trib., July 13, 1923, III Rec. (1924), at 236, 2 Ann. Dig. 23.
[FN156]. Shaíban v. Commissioner for Migration and Statistics, Palestine Sup. Ct. sitting as H.C.J., [1945] 12 P.L.R. 551, 12 Ann. Dig. 15.
[FN157]. Decree of Nov. 7, 1930, J.O.R.F., 13 Nov. 1930 (Togo and Cameroon).
[FN158]. The question of conversion under Jewish law, where only halachic conversion according to strict Orthodox tradition will be universally recognized, arose in Miller v. Ministry of the Interior, H.C. 230/86, P.D. 40(4) 436, 9 Jewish L. Ann. 265 (1991) (conversion by Reform rabbi; the court rejected the proposition from the Ministry to include the notation "convert" in the margin of the identity certificate); also Naamat v. Ministry of Interior, Bagatz 5070/95, Bagatz 2901/97, A.C. 392/99 (S. Ct., Feb. 20, 2002).
[FN159]. Damanhour, Egypt, Oct. 21, 1956, S. Hanafi, Recueil de jurisprudence de statut personnel, Moassassit al-Matbouat al-Haditha, Alexandria, undated (in Arabic), vol. 2, at 88, discussed in Sami Awad Aldeeb Abu-Sahlieh, L'impact de la relgion sur l'ordre juridique, cas de l'Egypte, non-musulmans en pays d'Islam 256-57, n. 29 (1979). Similarly, Farida Fouad Nakhla v. Sameer Ameer, [1957] S.L.J.R. 21 (C.A. Khartoum).
[FN160]. See also Ahmed Seif al-Islam Hamad, Legal Plurality and Legitimation of Human Rights Abuses, A Case Study of State Council Rulings Concerning the Rights of Apostates, in Legal Pluralism in the Arab World 220 (Baudouin Dupret et al. eds., 1999).
[FN161]. 1983 Code C. 1364.
[FN162]. E.g., art. 6 of the Algerian Nationality Code: "The following possess Algerian nationality by descent: (1) the child born of an Algerian father; (2) the child born of an Algerian mother and an unkown father; (3) the child born of an Algerian mother and a stateless father." (informal translation)
[FN163]. See Circular of 5 Nov. 1973 of Tunisian Ministry of Justice prohibiting solemnization of marriages between female Tunisian Muslims and non-Muslims, Université catholique de Louvain, Documentation sur le statut juridique des Musulmans en Belgique 311 (1990); Qur'an 2:21 ("And do not marry the idolatresses until they believe"); Taushihul Masa'el, ß 2406 (Shia compilation; "A Muslim woman cannot marry a non-Muslim, and a male Muslim cannot marry a non-Muslim woman who is not Ahlul Kitab [ahl al-kitab, person of scripture]").
[FN164]. Unpublished Egyptian case, 27 Feb. 1934, cited in A. Kessmat Elgeddawy, Relations entre systèmes confessionnel et laïque en droit international privé 165 (1971); cf. Barak v. Muslim Religious Court, (1987) 41(ii) P.D. 745, 23 Isr. L. Rev. 525 (1989), at 525; Philippine Civil Code, Art, 93 (public officials may not inquire into the bona fides of religious profession of applicants for marriage solemnization). Reconversion from Islam is not, however, cognizable by the Egyptian civil courts, which will enforce the shari'a prohibition, State Council case 20/29, Apr. 8, 1980, discussed in Ahmed Serf Al-Islam Hamad, Legal Plurality and Legitimation of Human Rights Abuses: A Case Study of State Council Rulings Concerning the Rights of Apostates, in Baudouin Dupret et al., Legal Pluralism in the Arab World. 219, 222 (1999).
[FN165]. Provisional Constitution of Mar. 5, 1958 of the United Arab Republic, art. 7, Cotran, Eugene, Some Legal Aspects of the Formation of the United Arab Repuglic and the United Arab States The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 382 (1959); Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights, Islamic Council, Paris, Sept. 19, 1981, art. XXIII(a): "In view of the fact that the World of Islam is veritably Ummah Islamia [world Muslim community], every Muslim shall have the right to freely move in and out of any Muslim country."
[FN166]. Abd-el-Hakim v. Ministere des Aaffaires Estrangeres, 12 Rev. Internat. dr. Internat. Publique 550 (1905), 32 Clunet 1035 (1905), 1908-II Sirey 121.
[FN167]. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman, The Crystallization of the Arab State System, 1945-1954, (1993).
[FN168]. Werner Menski, Nationalité, citoyenneté et Musulmans en Grande-Bretagne, in Islams d'Europe intégration ou insertion communautaire? 133-40 (Robert Bistolfi & François Zabbal eds., 1995).
[FN169]. Epoux Djebbar, Cons. d'Etat, Jul. 25, 1986, 1986 Rec. Lebon 214 (Algerian dual nationality rule; plea of mistake); Jacqueline Costa-Lascoux, L'immigration algérienne en France et la nationalité des enfants d'algériens, 1981 Ann. de l'Afrique du Nord 298.
[FN170]. EUROSTAT, "Acquisition of Citizenship by Naturalization in the European Union--1993", Statistics in Focus Population and Social Conditions, 1995/11, Cat. No. CA-NK-95-011-EN-C, which suggests that failure to naturalize may be due to the lateness of the relevant migration. Germany and Turkey only recently altered their nationality laws to facilitate naturalization, attribution of nationality at birth and dual nationality of Turks resident in Germany.
[FN171]. The BCCI litigation and Parliamentary and Congressional testimony provided such insight into transnational ethnic solidarity with economic and political significance: Report of Lord Justice Bingham, Inquiry Into the Supervision of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International, Oct. 22, 1992; 102th Cong., 2d Sess., U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, The BCCI Affair, Sept. 30 1992.
[FN172]. Brad R. Roth, Governmental Illegitimacy in International Law (1999).
[FN173]. Cf. tolerance by and towards Islamized and Muslim customary law regimes: Brigitte Djuidje, Pluralisme législatif camerounais et droit international privé 30-58 (1999).
[FN174]. "We ought not to be deceived or embarrassed by the attacks of the Orientalists on the origin of jihad ...", Qutb, supra note 9 at 59.
[FN175]. League of Arab States, draft Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism, Cairo, April 1998.
[FN176]. Qutb, supra note 9 at 95
[FN177]. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, Geneva, July 28, 1951, art. 1(F)189 U.N.T.S. 137, No. 2545 (1954).
[FN178]. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1994).
[FN179]. Nations and Nationalism (1983). Similarly, Kai Freese, Hijacking India's History, N.Y. Times, Dec. 30, 2002.
[FN180]. Thomas L. Friedman, The Core of Muslim Rage, N.Y. Times, Mar. 6, 2002, at A21.
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