Jeffers petroglyphs: examining socioeconomic and cultural differences between late archaic and late prehistoric periods introduction

Late Prehistoric Period

The changes during the Woodland period further developed in the Late Prehistoric Period, forming the economic and cultural landscape that Europeans became acquainted with during the first contact period. Lothson Gordon attributed the thunderbird, bison horn headdress man and battle scenes in the Jeffers Petroglyphs to the Late Prehistoric period, which spanned 900-1750, based on Native American history ethnography.

The more complex social, economic, and cultural structure of the Late Prehistoric Period than in previous periods is also reflected in rock art. Unlike the Archaic period, when the economy was dominated by hunting and gathering, the people of the Late Prehistoric Period of the Praire Lake region were mainly engaged in horticulture. The economy of tribal communities living in villages and seasonal camps consisted of seasonal agriculture, seasonal hunting, and seasonal gathering. Tribes on the borders of the Praire and Woodland natural zones used the resources of both zones. Communities trying to make the most of the riches of nature plant corn, bean and squash in spring, go bison hunting in mid-summer, and gather plants and fruits in autumn.

Seasonality in economic life was also reflected in the social structure and management of the tribes. For example, according to ethnographic data, the winter activities of the Ioway tribe, which has a clan social organization, were managed by the elders of the bear clan, and the spring activities were managed by the elders of the buffalo clan (Harvey 1979:53).

The economic prosperity caused by horticulture productivity in social life and the need to regulate complex tribal life gave rise to the first stratification embryos. Tribal leaders, medicine man or woman, and warriors are examples of this stratification.

Archaeological research, written and oral sources link the population of the Late Prehistoric Period and the existing Native American tribes. The ethnographic data recorded during the first contact with the Europeans can be used to interpret the rock carvings created by the people of the Late Prehistoric Period, who have lived in a similar social and economic structure since the 10^th century.

Climatic conditions were very important for horticultural communities engaged in seasonal farming. High crop yields were possible under appropriate temperature, precipitation and other climatic conditions. Tribal religious leaders performed various rituals and prayed for rain or sun from the holy spirits to ensure this. Ethnographic records recorded by Europeans in contact with the Native population during the first contact period also prove this:

1628 was a year of drought in the Huron country, and Toanché was among the places hardest hit. When Tehorenhaegnon, who was one of the most famous shamans in the region, failed to make rain, he announced that this was because the red-painted cross that had been erected in front of Brébeuf's cabin was frightening the thunderbird and causing the rain clouds to divide as they approached the village (Trigger 1976: 407-408).

The thunderbird is a mythological creature in the ethnography of some indigenous peoples of North America. It is seen as a supernatural entity of great power and strength. Thunderbird is often depicted as the X-shaped bird with its wings alongside its body and the head facing forward or sideways. As among the neighbouring Algonkian tribes, the thunder was believed to be a bird that lived in the sky. When he came to earth to feed, the flapping of his wings created the sound of thunder. In addition to exercising control over the rain, the thunderbird controlled bugs and other insects, which multiplied in the dry season (Trigger 1969:103).

As can be seen, thunderbird in Native mythology combines the power of meteorological factors such as lightning, rain, dry season, and control for bugs and insects. Archaeological and ethnographic studies have revealed that the thunderbird phenomena was essential in the religious pantheon and mythology of Native American cultures throughout the Late Prehistoric Period. The Late Prehistoric Period lasted until European contact, spanning the years 900-1750. During this time, the indigenous tribes of America's economy were mostly centred on horticulture, which was dependent on seasonal precipitation. Indigenous people grew corn, gourd, and beans on river banks and in terraces, primarily living in villages and seasonal camps. Traditional bison hunting was one of the key economic sectors along with horticulture. Both areas of the economy were dependent on climatic circumstances and required early forecasting of weather conditions. Ethnoclimotological research demonstrates that indigenous people used animal behaviour, particularly bird activity, to forecast the weather. Thus, the indigenous, who predicted whether it would rain, storm, or change seasons based on bird activity and migration, envisioned the mythological bird as a thunderbird, a holy spirit endowed with the power of the elements of climate.

Among the Assiniboine tribe, the Thunderbirds were the portion of the Great Power that the birds of the air symbolized, and the thunder and lightning were caused by these as their manifestations. The eagle and the various hawks were but other forms of the Thunderbird spirits. They were also the spirits of hunting and warfare, and success in these fields was had only through them (Rodnick 1938:45).