Footnotes
1 [Editor’s Note: all the footnoted text below is by Michael Chodkiewicz, editor of The Spiritual Writings of Amir ‘Abd al-Kader.] The distinction between showing the “subtle allusions” (ishārāt) and commentary properly speaking (tafsīr) is often affirmed by Ibn ‘Arabī. In the chapter of the Futūḥāt specifically devoted to the ishārāt (Futūḥāt al-makiyya, vol. 1, p. 278), Ibn ‘Arabī emphasizes the fact that spiritual men do not designate as tafsīr the interpretation they “see in themselves” (mā yarawnahu fī nufūsihim). This not only corresponds to a difference in nature between two modes of intellection, but it also serves as a measure of prudence to avoid controversies with the “literalists” (ṣāḥib al-rusūm).
2 The Arabic text gives the terms nuzūl, inzāl, tanzīl, īta’ which, although they have certain differences of meaning, are often used interchangeably to designate the “descent” of the Revelation.
3 This degree is that of the Name Allāh insofar as it applies to the ulūhiyya, the “function of divinity” (and not insofar as it applies to the divine Essence, which is “anterior” to the distinction of the Names).
4 The ḥadīth evoked here is that, reported in most of the canonical collections (for example, Bukhārī, tawhīd, 35, da‘awāt, 13, etc.) according to which: “Each night, Our Lord descends to the heaven of this lower world, where He remains only during the last third of the night and says: ‘Is there someone who invokes Me, that I may respond to him? Is there someone who addresses a prayer to Me, that I may answer it? Is there someone who asks Me for pardon, that I may pardon him?’”
5 This phrase alludes to verse 31 of Sura 9 where it is said of the Christians: “They have taken their doctors and their monks, along with Jesus, son of Mary, as Lords alongside of Allāh.” For ‘Abd al-Qādir, the “error” of the Christians is relative and not absolute. It does not consist in the fact of recognizing the created beings as manifestations of the divine Names, but in the reductive identification of God with one or another of His theophanies. The same remark is valid in reference to the Jews, envisaged in the following phrases, where the reference is to the Koran 9:30 [“And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allāh”]. This interpretation of “infidelity” (kufr) is analogous to that which Ibn ‘Arabī gives in the Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam with respect to Jesus (vol. 1, p. 141) where he says that the error of the Christians does not reside in the affirmation that “Jesus is God” nor that “He is the son of Mary,” but in the fact of “enclosing” (taḍmin) the vivifying power of God in the human person of Jesus.
6 According to a ḥadīth (Ibn Ḥanbal, 3, 145) the Muhammadan community is divided into 71 or 73 sects.
7 This remark should be understood as follows: just as the Prophet Muḥammad is the “Seal of Prophethood,” to whom “the knowledge of the first and the last” was given, so his community—in the person of its spiritual elite—inherits, by reason of its function at the end of the human cycle, the privilege of recapitulating, and thus validating, all the modes of knowledge of God corresponding to the specific perspectives of previous revelations.
The Shaykh Ahmad al-‘Alawī
and the Universalism of the Qur’ān:
A Presentation and Translation
of His Commentary on Verse 2:62
Tayeb Chouiref
Introductory Study
The Shaykh Ahmad al-‘Alawī (1869-1934) was one of the greatest spiritual masters of Islam in the 20th century. During his life, his personal radiation was immense, not only in Algeria and within the Arab world but also well-beyond, for some among his hundred thousand disciples resided in Europe and others in South-East Asia.
His intellectual radiation was no less considerable: besides the works he published on Sufism,1 he founded a newspaper, al-Balāgh al-jazā’irī, where he dealt at times with spiritual matters, and at other times with social matters, always from a strictly traditional perspective.2
Among the Islamic sciences, the Shaykh al-‘Alawī had a particular affinity with Qur’ānic exegesis. Evoking his relationship with the Qur’ān, he says of himself in a poem:
It [The Qur’ān] hath taken up its dwelling in our hearts and on our tongues and is mingled with our blood and our flesh and our bones and all that is in us.3
This inner relationship with the Qur’ān led him to compose a commentary in which he could communicate to the reader a part of what his “spiritual opening” allowed him to grasp of the divine Word. He entitled his commentary—unfortunately unfinished—al-Bahr al-masjūr,4 a Qur’ānic expression that may be rendered as “the boiling ocean.” This commentary distinguishes itself from classical works in that it approaches each verse in four steps: the Commentary (tafsīr) in which he explains the meaning of the words and sheds light on the circumstances of the revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl); the Deduction (istinbāt) where he expounds the rules and principles that may be drawn from the verse; the Spiritual Allusion (ishāra) that allows him to enunciate spiritual truths which appear to be far removed from the literal text; and, finally, the Language of the Spirit (lisān al-Rūh) where he provides insights into Sufi metaphysical doctrine.
The passage of the Bahr al-masjūr which we have translated below, and which we introduce here, is a commentary upon verse 2:62:
Lo! Those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabaeans—whoever believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doeth right—surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve.5
This verse that the Shaykh al-‘Alawī characterizes as enigmatic (lughz) enunciates clearly the universal perspective of the Qur’ān. It must, however, be noted that the universalism of the Book, as well as that of the Prophet, was harmed by the historical evolution of the Muslim community: political stakes, theological controversies, the social impact of the Crusades, etc. contributed greatly to the withdrawal of the universalist spirit in Islamic lands. To this must be added the complex evolution and the often ill supported extension of the theory of abrogation. In what follows, we will thus briefly remind our reader of the essential points of this theory in order better to bring to light the theological stakes that lie at the core of the Shaykh’s argumentation in his commentary.
Although the Prophet expressly affirmed the right of Christians and of Jews to practice their respective religions in Islamic lands, theologians developed the theory of abrogation (naskh) according to which the Qur’ānic revelation supersedes all other religions. Historically, the phenomenon of abrogation pertains, in Islam, to the very process of the revelation of the Qur’ān. Certain verses were, in fact, replaced by others, thereby losing all legal import. It is in such a way that verse 2:240, stipulating that the period of abstinence (‘idda) of a widow must last one year, is abrogated by verse 234 of the same surah which reduces this period to four months and ten days. One of the reasons that led theologians to affirm the abrogation of the previous revealed Laws is the Qur’ānic affirmation according to which the Jews and the Christians have altered their Scriptures (tahrīf). The Qur’ān reproaches them, for example, for having eliminated the announcement of the coming of the prophet Muhammad.6
The diversity of the positions of theologians concerning the abrogation by Islam of the other Abrahamic religions can be summarized by four theses:7
The Law of Muhammad abrogates all others.
The Law of Abraham is still valid with the exception of what in it has been abrogated by the Law of Muhammad.
With the same exception, the Law of Moses is still valid in addition to Abraham’s.
With again the same exception, the Law of Jesus is still valid in addition to Abraham’s.
Those who hold the three last theses base themselves on the verses inviting Muslims to follow the “guidance” that certain ancient prophets received (Qur’ān, 6:90 and 16:123).
However, the thesis of abrogation raises quasi-insoluble theoretical problems: When does the Qur’ānic Revelation abrogate the other Laws? From the moment of the first revelation in the Cave of Hira? At the time of the Hegira? Upon the death of the Prophet? At which precise moment does a Jewish or Christian believer cease to practice a religion accepted by Heaven? Why would a believer be rejected by God for an event of which he may be totally unaware? For theologians seeking not to attribute to God an utter lack of mercy the only tenable position is that of the “transmission of the message” (tablīgh): the religion of the Christian and the Jew ceases to be valid from the moment when he receives the message of Islam. This position allows one to prolong the validity of these religions well beyond the life of the Prophet, but it poses other problems: What should one understand by “transmission of the message”? Does knowledge of the existence of Islam necessarily mean that one has received and understood its message?
Thus, the theory of the abrogation of previous religions by Islam, as useful as it may be for the social cohesion of the Muslim community, is hardly satisfying from the point of view of spiritual coherence and the legitimate needs of thought. This theory seems more rooted in the development of a contra errores infidelium apologetics than it is the fruit of a literal reading of the sacred texts of Islam.
Moreover, Ibn Hazm (d. 1063), one of the most important representatives of the “literalist” school of jurisprudence (madhhab zāhirī), gives this recommendation:
Put your trust in the pious man, even if he does not share your religion, and distrust the impious, even if he belongs to your religion.8
It is not surprising, therefore, that it was above all the mystics who insisted on the universalist dimension of the Qur’ānic message. They seem in this closer to the positions of the Prophet than were the theologians. In fact, far from announcing to them the abrogation of their religion, the Prophet invited a delegation of Christians from Najrān to perform their rites within the very walls of the mosque of Medina, something which greatly surprised certain of the Companions.9 Concerning the attitude of a Muslim faced with what may disconcert him in other religions, the Prophet recommends a pious suspension of judgment: “Do not say that what is related by the people of the Book is true, do not say either that it is false, but say: ‘We believe in Allah and that which is revealed unto us and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which was vouchsafed unto Moses and Jesus and the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered.’”10 These words of the Prophet seem to guard the common believer against two opposite pitfalls: syncretism and peremptory rejection. Nevertheless, this hadīth of the Prophet undeniably establishes a certain “right” to religious exclusivism. Exclusivism is not simply a sign of human limitation, for it also results from the divine origin of a religion:
In normal times a man’s religion is the religion, and in fact each religion addresses itself to a humanity which, for it, is humanity as such. The exclusivism of a religion is a symbol of its divine origin, of the fact that it comes from the Absolute, of its being in itself a total way of life.11
It is through the initiatic development and the opening of the “eye of the heart” that the Sufis will seek to avoid the two previously mentioned pitfalls:
Because it is concerned with the inner meaning (ma‘nā) through the penetration of the outward form (nām), Sufism is by nature qualified to delve into the mysterious unity that underlies the diversity of religious forms.”12
Ibrāhīm Ibn Adham (d. 777), a mystic belonging to the era of the Predecessors (salaf), did not hesitate to acknowledge that he had a Christian monk among his spiritual masters:
I received gnosis (ma‘rifa) through the teaching of a monk named Father Symeon.13
What do the first mystical commentaries of the Qur’ān say about the verse of interest to us here? ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Qushayrī (d. 1072), author of the famous Risāla, comments upon it thus:
The divergence of ways, since they derive from the same Principle (asl), does not endanger the obtainment of divine Acceptance. Whoever believes in the words of the Real—may He be Exalted—concerning what they teach on His Nature and His Attributes will receive divine Satisfaction (Ridwān Allāh), whatever be the divine Name that he may invoke and the sacred Law that he may follow.14
A few centuries later, Ismā’īl Haqqī (d. 1724), in his mystical commentary of the Qur’ān entitled Rūh al-bayān, will justify the universalism of his commentary on verse 2: 62 by an allusion to the immutable Religion that he calls the “Religion of Truth” (al-Dīn al-Haqq):
Know that the beauty of the Religion of Truth is present in all souls: what leads away from it is nothing other than human limitations (āfāt bashariyya) and blind imitation (taqlīd). In fact, every man is born in accordance with the primordial nature (fitra) as the Prophet has said, peace and blessing be upon him. . . . According to Ibn al-Malik, one must understand by “primordial nature” the “Yes” that every man, before coming into this world, answered to God’s question: “Am I not your Lord?” Every man has, therefore, affirmed his faith in God following a direct contemplation of the Real.15
The forgetfulness or rejection of the universalist spirit of Islam leads to what Ibn ‘Arabī (d. 1240) called the withdrawal into the worship of “the god created by beliefs.” In this connection, he offers the following recommendation:
Beware not to bind yourself to a particular belief by denying others, for you would lose a great good; and what is more, the true nature of things would16 inevitably elude you! Let your soul be the substance of all beliefs, for Allāh the Most-High is too vast and too immense to be enclosed in one belief to the exclusion of others.17
Moreover, Ibn ‘Arabī underlines that the people of the Book are shown to be integrated and protected under the Muslim Law by the per capita tax called jizya, thereby demonstrating what Michel Chodkiewicz terms a “derived validity.”18
Sufi masters have sometimes accepted that non-Muslims, attracted by the aura of their sanctity, may benefit from their teachings. The great mystical poet Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (d. 1273) evidenced a great openness in this domain. He himself relates the following anecdote:
I was speaking one day amongst a group of people, and a party of non-Muslims were present. In the middle of my address they began to weep and to register emotion and ecstasy.
Somebody asked: What do they understand and what do they know? Only one Muslim in a thousand understands this kind of talk. What did they understand, that they should weep?
I answered: . . . After all, everyone acknowledges that He is the Creator and the One who provides for everything, that He is the Master of all, that to Him all things shall return, that it is He who punishes and forgives. When anyone hears these words, which are a description and a remembrance of God, a universal commotion and ecstatic passion supervenes, for the fragrance of their Beloved emanates from these words.19
For his part, the Shaykh al-‘Alawī always showed a keen interest in all religions, and we know that he particularly appreciated the Gospel of John.
Expressing himself in Algeria, where Muslims were suffering greatly from French colonization, the Shaykh had to be careful in his formulations concerning his approach to other religions, and particularly so with respect to Christianity. Indeed, for the Algerian movements of reformist Islam (islāh),20 any universalist perspective was nothing but a disguised form of a willingness to collaborate with the enemy. The Shaykh’s prudence, however, does not exclude clarity: the translation of the following commentary is one more proof of the religious universality of the Shaykh and one of the expressions of his profound understanding of the Qur’ān.
Translation21
Qur’ān (2:62)
Lo! Those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabaeans—whoever believeth in Allah and the Last Day and doeth right—surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve. (Qur’ān 2:62)
tafsīr):
Whoever meditates on the Qur’ān realizes that God is more merciful toward the servant than the latter could be toward himself. Thus God, after having struck the sons of Israel with deafness as a punishment for their unfaithfulness, describes these men in all of their perversity. But He then shows Himself under His Attribute of Mercy, for this prevails over His Wrath.22 Henceforth the sons of Israel were encompassed in this Mercy and placed among the number of those who have faith among other traditional communities: there is no greater sweetness than that! . . .
Deduction (istinbāt):
We can draw three deductions from this verse:
The traditional communities (firaq)23—including Islam—are, in themselves, equal since they form the object, in this verse, of a single enumeration.
A man having faith in what is taught by Islam could be considered as belonging to the people of the Book, even if he does not accomplish the pious actions that must, in principle, accompany his faith. This will not be the case if his actions are contrary to his faith.
The Sabaeans possess a sacred Law since they are mentioned among the traditional com munities who possess one.
Spiritual Allusion (ishāra):
The fact of mentioning side-by-side the different traditional communities while not distinguishing Muslim believers from other believers must lead us to consider no one, be he a Muslim or an infidel (kāfir), pious or sinful, as being inferior to us, and this throughout our entire life. In fact, our destiny is unknown to us and it is our state at the moment of death that matters: such is the lot of all mankind.
Language of the Spirit (lisān al-Rūh):
Thus I have understood from this enigmatic verse that all aforementioned traditional communities possess a genuine validity in Religion (makāna fī l-Dīn). One may draw from the order of the enumeration a certain preeminence of the first over the last, but it remains nonetheless that a traditional community will always be of an incomparably higher rank than pagan cults.
Translated by Patrick Laude and Joseph Fitzgerald
Earnest for truth, I thought on the religions (tafakkartu fī al-adyān):
They are, I found, one root with many a branch.
Therefore impose on no man a religion,
Lest it should bar him from the firm-set root.
Let the root claim him, a root wherein all heights
And meanings are made clear, for him to grasp.
Mansūr al-Hallāj
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