Models of Instruction

Slavin (1994)	Gagne (1977); Gagne & Briggs (1979)	Rosenshine (1995)	Hunter (1982) (Mastery Teaching)
Good & Grouws (1979) (Missouri Mathematics Program)
1. State learning objectives and orient students to lesson.	1. Gain and control attention 2. Inform the learner of expected outcomes.	1. Review Homework Relevant previous learning Prerequisite skills	1. Objectives; provide anticipatory set.	1. Opening.
2. Review prerequisites.	3. Stimulate recall of relevant prerequisite capabilities.	2. Presentation State goals Small steps Model Examples Check understanding	2. Review.	2. Review homework; mental computations; review prerequisites.
3. Present new material.	4. Present the stimuli inherent to the learning task	3. Guided practice High frequency of questions All students respond High success rate Continue to fluency	3. Input & modeling	3. Developement.
4. Conduct learning probes.	5. Offer guidance for learning. .	4. Corrections & Feedback Process Sustaining Reteach	4. Check understanding and guided practice.	4. Assess student comprehension.
5. Provide independent practice.	6. Elicit performance 7. Provide feedback	5. Independent practice. Help during initial steps Continue to automaticity Active supervision	5. Independent practice.	5. Seatwork.
6. Assess performance and provide feedback.	8. Appraise performance.
7. Provide distributed practice and review.	9. Ensure retention and make provisions for transferability	6. Weekly and monthly reviews	6. Homework.	6. Homework; weekly and monthly reviews.

Notice that Slavin's model, which provides a reasonable summary of the approach of the other models, is focused on the activities of the teacher. This is in line with his QAIT model of effective classrooms in which he proposes that the classroom teacher is responsible for classroom learning. Huitt (1996) provides a model of direct instruction from a transactional perspective. From this viewpoint, both the teacher and student are active participants in the learning process, each with their respective responsibilities. At each event of instruction, Huitt provides both a recommended teacher activity and a set of alternative student activities. The most important deviation from the other models is that Huitt emphasizes teacher/student interaction at every event in the lesson.

Considering Individual Differences

Although the research shows that, in general, direct instruction is the preferred model of instruction when the measure of learning is scores on a standardized test of basic skills, teachers must also decide how to deal with individual differences. In general there are three different approaches. The first is to develop a set of instructional events that directly address different student learning styles. This is the approach adopted by Bernice McCarthy in her 4MAT System. A second approach is to use a method of grouping. Research has shown that cooperative learning, an in-class, hetergenous grouping alternative, is an effective alternative that both impacts student achievement as well as social skills. A third approach is to alter the schooling system within which instruction is provided. This is the approach used by Bloom (1976; see Davis & Sorrell, 1995) in his mastery learning strategy. Although many teachers have attempted to implement a mastery learning strategy in their individual classrooms, the approach seems to work best when implemented on a school- or district-wide basis.

Summary

In summary, instruction (the purposeful guidance of the learning process) is complex and can take many forms. It is a vitally important classroom activity, but must be considered in the context of such factors as measures of desired student learning (including overlapping objectives taught to objectives tested), controlling student behavior (classroom management activities), individual differences among students, and school processes and characteristics. Under the best conditions it takes many years of experience for most teachers to meet the ideals of instructional practice that they set for themselves as preservice undergraduate students.

References

Huitt, W. (2003). Classroom instruction. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [date], from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/instruct/instruct.html