Aura 2016: first Australian report on antimicrobial use and resistance in human health
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Treatment
- Types and impact of resistance
- Key findings (national)
- Jurisdictional rates
- Additional findings from targeted surveillance
4.4 Enterococcus speciesHealth impactEnterococcus species are opportunistic pathogens that cause a range of infections in patients whose physical barriers are compromised through surgery or invasive devices. They are a cause of urinary tract infection in patients with catheters or structural abnormalities, and are associated with other intestinal organisms in many intra-abdominal infections, especially those of the biliary tract. These infections can be complicated by septicaemia. Enterococci are also a less common but important cause of endocarditis. Two species dominate in human infection: E. faecalis and E. faecium. According to AGAR data, the 30-day all-cause mortality was significantly higher for E. faecium than for E. faecalis, and vancomycin resistance in E. faecalis appeared to be associated with increased 30-day mortality. The most common clinical syndromes associated with enterococcal bacteraemia were biliary and urinary tract infections (Table 4.9). Apart from infections without a definite focus, all infections were more common in males. Table 4.9 Principal clinical manifestations of infection with Enterococcus species (blood culture isolates), 2014
Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) TreatmentEnterococci are naturally resistant to a range of common antimicrobial classes, including β-lactamase-resistant penicillin, cephalosporins, macrolides and lincosamides. Amoxicillin administered orally is the most common treatment for minor infections. More serious infections are treated with intravenous ampicillin or amoxicillin, and, for endocarditis, one of these agents is combined with low-dose gentamicin. Vancomycin is used instead of ampicillin/amoxicillin for serious infections in patients who are allergic to penicillins. Types and impact of resistanceAmpicillin resistance has emerged worldwide at quite high levels in E. faecium during the past 20 years, including in Australia, increasing the use of vancomycin for treatment. More recently, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) have also emerged, most notably in E. faecium, but also in E. faecalis. The gene complexes responsible are of two main types, vanA and vanB. In Australia, unlike in most other countries, VRE have been dominated by the vanB, rather than the vanA, genotype. VRE require treatment with agents that are usually reserved, such as teicoplanin or daptomycin. Key findings (national)Rates of resistance to key antimicrobials in E. faecalis were very low – in 2014, less than 1% of isolates from blood (n = 839), urine (n = 4258) and other sites (n = 1027) were resistant to ampicillin, vancomycin or linezolid (Figure 4.10). Rates of resistance showed some differences by clinical setting (Figure 4.11). Rates of resistance to key antimicrobials in E. faecalis were very low, but rates of resistance in E. faecium to ampicillin and vancomycin were high. In contrast, rates of resistance in E. faecium to ampicillin and vancomycin were high (Figures 4.12 and 4.13). Linezolid resistance was rare. Specimen source did not substantially influence rates of resistance (Figure 4.12). There was some variation in the rates of vancomycin resistance in E. faecium, depending on the setting. Rates were higher in the private hospital and community sectors than in the public hospital sector. This may have been a sampling issue, given that most data came from Queensland. Figure 4.10 Enterococcus faecalis resistance, by specimen source, 2014 
Sources: OrgTRx (Queensland); Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national); Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology (Queensland and northern New South Wales) Data table: Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11 Enterococcus faecalis resistance, by clinical setting, 2014 
Sources: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (AGAR) (public hospitals); OrgTRx (public hospitals and health services); AGAR and Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology (SNP) (private hospitals); SNP (community) Data table: Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12 Enterococcus faecium resistance, by specimen source, 2014 
Sources: OrgTRx (Queensland); Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national); Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology (Queensland and northern New South Wales) Data table: Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13 Enterococcus faecium resistance, by clinical setting, 2014 
Sources: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (AGAR) (public hospitals); OrgTRx (public hospitals and health services), AGAR and Sullivan Nicolaides Pathology (SNP) (private hospitals); SNP (community) Data table: Figure 4.13
Jurisdictional ratesThe percentages of Enterococcus species that are resistant to key antimicrobials are shown in Tables 4.10 and 4.11. Table 4.10 Percentage of Enterococcus faecium resistance, by jurisdiction of testing (blood culture isolates), 2014
– = no data available; ACT = Australian Capital Territory; na = not applicable; NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; Qld = Queensland; SA = South Australia; Tas = Tasmania; Vic = Victoria; WA = Western Australia a n = 34 b n = 36 Notes:
1. Resistance determined using European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing interpretive criteria. 2. Not all antimicrobial agents were reported for all species. Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) Table 4.11 Percentage of Enterococcus faecalis resistance, by jurisdiction of testing (blood culture isolates), 2014
– = no data available; ACT = Australian Capital Territory; NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; Qld = Queensland; SA = South Australia; Tas = Tasmania; Vic = Victoria; WA = Western Australia a n = 89 b n = 32 c n = 75 Notes: 1. Resistance determined using European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing interpretive criteria. 2. Not all antimicrobial agents were reported for all species. Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) Vancomycin-resistant E. faecium is the main AMR issue for Enterococcus species. Figure 4.14 confirms that the main type of vancomycin-resistant E. faecium circulating in Australia is of the vanB type. In New South Wales, vanA is now also prominent.
ACT = Australian Capital Territory; NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; Qld = Queensland; SA = South Australia; Tas = Tasmania; Vic = Victoria; WA = Western Australia Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) Data table: Figure 4.14
Additional findings from targeted surveillanceData from AGAR is available for 30-day all-cause mortality. The all-cause mortality at 30 days was significantly higher for E. faecium infections than for E. faecalis infections, and vancomycin resistance in E. faecalis appeared to have an even greater association with 30-day mortality (Table 4.12). The all-cause mortality at 30 days was significantly higher for E. faecium infections than for E. faecalis infections, and vancomycin resistance in E. faecalis appeared to have an even greater association with 30-day mortality. Table 4.12 Onset setting and 30-day all-cause mortality for infections with Enterococcus (blood culture isolates), 2014
Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) Vancomycin-resistant enterococci were typed using multilocus sequence typing. Different sequence types had established in different jurisdictions (although Tasmania aligned with Victoria), consistent with rapid local or regional spread rather than national spread (Figure 4.15). Full data from AGAR surveys of Enterococcus species can be found on the AGAR website (see Appendix 3).
ACT = Australian Capital Territory; NSW = New South Wales; NT = Northern Territory; Qld = Queensland; SA = South Australia; Tas = Tasmania; Vic = Victoria; WA = Western Australia Source: Australian Group on Antimicrobial Resistance (national) Data table: Figure 4.15
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