Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : TRANSKEI; LABOUR; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; GENDER

ASPECTS; ECONOMIC ASPECTS; SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : The purpose of the study was to identify many variables, which could

influence the effectiveness of the farmer support programme. Questionnaires and

informal interviews were used for the study. The demographic data, while

unexceptional for the Transkei, does reveal peasant agriculture's high reliance

on married females who can only expect assistance from mainly school drop-outs

and married males who do not migrate. This signifies a severe constraint on

labour which stems both from a high male migration rate (48.7%) as well as from

the returning migrant conforming himself mostly to consuming and harvesting the

crops which women have cultivated. What emerges, is a self-imposed constraint

on operating capital entering agriculture. This is manifested by the fact that,

on the average, only 5.2% of household expenditure is devoted to farming, that

farming expenditure absorbs less than 10% of migrant remittances, and that the

proportion of total income going into farming actually drops with rising

incomes. See ref. I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 2511

1952. Transkei Land Service Organization (TRALSO) Dwesa and Cwebe: enduring

democratic conservation after apartheid's abuses. Research Report.Anonymous East

London:Border Rural Committee. , 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION; POPULATION; LAND USE; FORESTRY; CISKEI; ECONOMIC

ASPECTS; RURAL DEVELOPMENT; VELD MANAGEMENT; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT;

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Notes : The purpose of the study was to address the issue of ecotourism in Dwesa

and Cwebe by learning from the expertise of the indigenous population. Field

visits and interviews were used for the study. Dwesa and Cwebe were a local

subsistence economy, which flourished for perhaps a millenium or more. Tody it

is a land dissected with an apartheid boundary. The coast is devoid of human

habitation. Inland, beyond the fence, live the descendants of the historical

inhabitants of this whole area. Land use at Dwesa and Cwebe falls into 1)

conservation, potentially underpinning lucrative ecotourism 2) conservation, in

defence of local resource use 3) agriculture, ranging from actual subsistence

activities to meeting food and other needs of tourists and launching innovative

commercial projects around social forestry and marine farming. Dwesa and Cwebe

residents are pursuing an economic strategy that will lead the way for economic

development in their district. The strategy is based on sustainable use and

conservation of natural resources. This document is obtainable from the Border

Rural Committee, East London. See also ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2216

1953. Tredoux, G. A preliminary investigation of the nitrate content of

goundwater and limitation of the nitrate input.Anonymous Water Research

Commission. 368/1/93, 1993.

Reprint : Not in File,

Ref ID : 1889

1954. Triebel, C. Water management in the RSA. Veld Trust Conference on the

conservation status of agricultural resources in the RSA. Du Preez,

J.F.Anonymous Pretoria:Unisa. , 1990.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION

Ref ID : 1413

1955. Trollip, H. Overview of the South African Energy sector.Anonymous

Pretoria:Energy Branch, Department of Minerals and Energy. EG9404:1-111, 1996.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : ENERGY; DEFORESTATION; POLICY; ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Notes : Several pages dealing with deforestation have been photocopied. In

these pages, the topic of biomass is discussed, under the sub-heads: woodfuel

supply to households; and bagasse.

Ref ID : 672

1956. Trollope, W.S.W. A consideration of Macchia (Fynbos) encroachment in South

Africa and an investigation into methods of Macchia eradication in the Amatola

mountains. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

of Master of Science in Agriculture.University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. ,

1970. Abstract in file.Master of Science.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : FYNBOS; BUSH ENCROACHMENT; EASTERN CAPE; DESERTIFICATION CONTROL;

FIRE; VELD MANAGEMENT; GRASSLAND; RAINFALL; WESTERN CAPE; SOUTHERN AFRICA;

LABOUR

Notes : In many parts of SA woody vegetation has tended to become dominant at

the expense of grassland largely because of misuse of the grassland grazing.

One such example is the encroachment of macchia vegetation into extensive tracts

of mountain grassveld in the Eastern Cape, which has rendered these areas

agriculturally unproductive. As a result a program of research was initiated in

the Amatola mounts to determine the most efficient method of eradicating this

macchia vegetation and restoring the natural grassland vegetation. Macchia is

the dominant vegetation of the winter rainfall region of the south western Cape

Province. However, from here it extends in varying amounts along the central

and eastern mountains of SA and, with interruptions, along the mountains of the

tropics of Ethiopia. It also occurs along the south and east coasts of SA and

outliers are present in South West Africa and Angola. The Southern African

macchia has close affinities with macchia floras of other continents and several

explanations have been put forward to explain the origin of macchia in SA in the

light of these intercontinental relationships. The most acceptable explanation

is that the macchia of Southern Africa has multiple origins. At least some of

the intercontinental affinities in the macchia vegetation can be explained by

the theory of continental drift. The fragmentation of once continuous

distributions of macchia in that continent and the drift of the newly formed

continents led to varying degrees of migration of plants as the environment

changed. However, in approximately the last 500 years macchia has spread and

increased markedly along the southern mountains and coastal plains of SA. This

has been caused by the activities of man and if no steps are taken to prevent

the further encroachment of macchia, it is predicted that by the year 2050 it

will have spread further eastwards and northwards to the Winterberg, Drakensberg

and Natal. In the Amatole mountains there are two distinct macchia communities,

namely, the lowland macchia and the highland macchia. The lowland macchia is

dominated by Cliffortia linearifolia and occurs at altitudes of less than 1,200

m (approximately 4, 000 ft) where the rainfall is not less than 635 mm (25 in)

per annum. The highland macchia comprises two co-dominants, Erica brownleeae

and Cliffortia paucistiminae, and grows at altitudes of greater than 1,200 m

(approximately 4,000 ft). Both these macchia communities are above the

grassland stage in the plant succession and their encroachment has been caused

by the overgrazing of the grassland and the elimination of regular veld fires.

Other macchia species that have become problems in certain veld types of SA as a

result of their encroachment and relative unacceptability to animals, are

Elytropappus rhinocerotis (rhenosterbos), Eryops spp. (harpuis), Stoebe vulgaris

(slangbos) and Athanasia acerosa (Curry's Post Weed). The encroachment of all

these macchia species has been caused by the overgrazing of the grass component

of the vegetation and the elimination of regular veld fires, in areas where the

macchia species form a natural element of the vegetation. There is very little

information available on the eradication of these macchia species, but in all

cases fire has a detrimental effect on them and if followed by a rest, favours

the establishment of a grass sward, provided of course, the soil conditions are

suitable for the growth of grass. Rhenosterbos and Eryops oligoglossus have

been successfully eradicated by cutting the mature plants off at ground level,

while certain weedicides have been effective in the eradication of slangbos.

The research programme in the Amatole mountains comprised two similar

experiments, one in the lowland macchia community and the other in the highland

macchia community. A wide range of treatments were applied during different

seasons of the year and comprised spraying with 2-4-5T weedicide at three

concentrations, cutting at two different heights, stumping and burning. The

results from the Lowland Macchia Experiment showed that of the different methods

of eradication tested only stumping and burning had a marked detrimental effect

on the mature Cliffortia linearifolia plants. However, of the two methods,

stumping was the most effective means of destroying the mature macchia plants

and re-establishing a vigorous grass sward. Nevertheless, the practicability of

using this method will depend on the availability of manual labour and the costs

of stumping can be expected to be far in excess of burning. Conversely burning

is a very easy method to apply and in spite of causing a lower kill of mature

macchia plants, it caused an equally significant improvement in the grass sward.

In the Highland Macchia Experiment burning was the most effective and practical

method of eradicating the two major macchia species, Erica brownleeae and

Cliffortia paucistaminea, and re-establishing a vigorous grass sward. Stumping

was the least effective method of eradication, because even though it

successfully destroyed the mature macchia plants, it had a very marked

detrimental effect on the grass sward. Cutting and spraying with 2-4-5T

weedicide at the rate of 0,931 kg acid equivalent per hectare (1,75 lbs

A.E./morgen), were also very effective in destroying the mature macchia plants

and re-establishing a vigorous grass sward. However, the practicability of

cutting depends on how it is applied, while the use of 2-4-5T weedicide

dissolved in illuminating paraffin is prejudiced by the high costs involved. In

both experiments the macchia showed signs of re-establishing itself to various

degrees, thus indicating the necessity for follow-up treatment after the initial

eradication of the mature macchia plants. Thus in the ecological sense, the

processes involved in the successful eradication of the macchia and the re-

establishment of a permanent grassland vegetation are the reversal of the plant

succession from the higher macchia stage to the grassland stage and the

stabilization of the plant succession at this stage.

Ref ID : 1341

1957. Trollope, W.S.W. Pasture management in the Ciskei.Anonymous :49-54, 1972.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CISKEI; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; IRRIGATION; RAINFALL

Notes : For all intents and purposes pasture management in the Ciskei comprises

livestock production off the natural veld. Cultivated pastures are confined to

the Jan Tshatshu Irrigation Scheme, which is 204 ha in size and is situated

adjacent to Zwelitsha township near King William's Town. The natural veld in

the Ciskei makes up approximately 81 per cent of the total area (Brown, 1969),

and is therefore the most important natural resource of the territory.

Consequently this paper will deal exclusively with aspects pertaining to the

veld in the Ciskei and this will include a brief description of the vegetation,

veld rehabilitation schemes, grazing problems and possible ways of solving them.

It is felt that there is no great potential for cultivated pastures in the

Ciskei, because of the generally low rainfall received by the territory and the

great demand placed on any suitable land for the production of agronomic crops.

Ref ID : 152

1958. Trollope, W.S.W. Pasture management in the Ciskei. Fort Hare Papers :49-

54, 1974.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; VELD MANAGEMENT; BUSH

ENCROACHMENT

Ref ID : 150

1959. Trollope, W.S.W. The agricultural potential of the Ciskei [Amended

Report].Anonymous Ciskei:Faculty of Agriculture, University of Fort Hare. :ii-

118, 1978.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; PRODUCTION POTENTIAL; VELD

MANAGEMENT; AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; LAND USE;

LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; SOIL EROSION; EROSION; IRRIGATION

Notes : The author concludes the following: 1) It is firmly believed that

socio-economic factors are primarily responsible for the extremely low level of

agricultural production currently being attained in the Ciskei. Although socio-

economic studies were beyond the scope of this project, their importance in

relation to agricultural development cannot be over-emphasized. Four of the

major socio-economic factors limiting agricultural production in the Ciskei

apparently are: a) lack of motivation towards a market-economy type of

agriculture; b) absence of young male persons; c) certain rigid institutional

measures governing agriculture; and d) too many people being dependent upon

living from the land; 2) Present land-use and production levels are no

indication of the agricultural potentials of the different areas of land. Many

areas which are cultivated presently should never be cultivated, whilst some

areas of high potential arable land are not utilised for that purpose at

present; (3) The major part of the Ciskei is best suited for livestock

production off the natural veld. Unfortunately malpractices such as

overstocking and poor pasture management have led to the destruction of the

natural vegetal cover in large areas of the Ciskei. This has caused severe soil

erosion and the encroachment of undesirable plants, resulting in a marked

reduction in grazing potential; (4) Turn-over rates in cattle farming are

extremely low, mainly due to: a) undernutrition (overgrazing); b) incorrect herd

composition; and c) milking of cows for human consumption; (5) Turn-over rates

in smallstock farming are low. Pig and poultry farming are relatively

unimportant; (6) The average dryland cropping potential of the Ciskei is low.

Only very limited areas have high or medium potentials for dryland crop

production. Inadequate moisture limits Ciskeian crop production more seriously

than any other environmental factor; (7) Due to the limited potential for

dryland crop production, the irrigation potential of the Ciskei will have to be

fully exploited. Although it is difficult at present to estimate the total area

of land which is potentially irrigable in the Ciskei, it seems that it is

between 10 000 and 20 000 hectares; (8) The horticultural industry has been

seriously neglected in the Ciskei, but the area has got a considerable potential

for the production of certain horticultural crops; and (9) It must be emphasized

that lack of RELEVANT and APPLICABLE RESEARCH DATA is a major factor limiting

agricultural planning and agricultural development in the Ciskei.

Ref ID : 1733

1960. Trollope, W.S.W. Controlling bush encroachment with fire in the savanna

areas of South Africa. Proceedings of the Grassland Society of southern Africa

15(173):177, 1980.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT; FIRE; SAVANNA; VELD MANAGEMENT; SOIL PROPERTIES;

RAINFALL

Abstract : The savanna areas of South Africa can be divided into the moist and

ard savanna types according to the availability of soil moisture. Bush

encroachment is a serious veld management problem in all the savanna areas and

veld burning is a potential eradication technique in situations with an adequate

grass cover to support an intense fire. In the moist savannas fire per se can

be used to control bush encroachment but in the arid savannas it has the role of

maintaining trees and shrubs at an available height and in acceptable state for

browsing animals. Intense head fires applied at the end of the dormant season

are used for bush eradication. The frequency of burning is relatively high in

the moist savannas but is very low in the arid savannas, being usually limited

to years with above average rainfall when adequate grass fuel loads can be

accumulated. Veld burning provides an attractive economic and energy saving

technique of solving the problem of bush encroachment in the savanna areas of

South Africa.

Ref ID : 1548

1961. Trollope, W.S.W. Veld rehabilitation as a development strategy for the

Ciskei.Anonymous Alice:University of Fort Hare. :1-8, 1982.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CISKEI; COMMUNAL AREA; EASTERN CAPE; VELD CONDITION; VELD MANAGEMENT;

RESTORATION; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION; ECONOMIC ASPECTS;

SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS; INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS

Notes : The author concludes that, as a result of the work described in this

article, it is suggested that a well-managed livestock industry, based on veld

should enjoy a high priority in the overall development strategy for the Ciskei.

Furthermore, the data shows that veld rehabilitatioin is economically viable and

if implemented could significantly contribute to the economic development of the

Ciskei. It is recognised, though, that if veld rehabilitation is implemented

without attending to the fundamental socio-economic factors limiting

agricultural development in the Ciskei, it will not succeed. The important

point though is that the scientific technology necessary for achieving veld

rehabilitation under location farming conditions, has been developed and is

available for use in the Ciskei. All that remains is that viable socio-economic

structures be evolved to enable the successful implementation of this scientific

technology.

Ref ID : 673

1962. Trollope, W.S.W. Control of bush encroachment with fire in the arid

savannas on southeastern Africa. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.University of Natal,

Pietermaritzburg. , 1983. Abstract in file.Doctoral Dissertation.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : VELD MANAGEMENT; SAVANNA; FIRE; EASTERN CAPE; BUSH ENCROACHMENT;

CISKEI; TRANSKEI; FOREST; RAINFALL; STOCKING RATE; ENERGY; STATISTICS

Notes : The arid savannas of southeastern Africa comprise the thornveld and

valley bushveld areas of the Eastern Cape, Ciskei and Transkei that receive less

than 650 mm of rain per annum. Bush encroachment has become a serious problem in

the thornveld areas where it has drastically reduced the grazing capacity of the

veld. The encroachment has occurred from the valley bushveld of the dissecting

river valleys and from the scrub forest that is marginal to the high forest of

the Winterberg, Katberg and Amatole mountain ranges. The principal encroaching

species is the Acacia karoo but other important associated species are Scutia

myrtina, Maytenus heterophylla Rhus spp., Diospyros lycioides, Xeromphis rudis,

Azima tetracantha and Ziziphus mucronata. The two most important factors to be

considered when formulating a program for controlling bush encroachment are the

ecological and economic consequences of applying the control methods. Fire was

chosen as a possible method of controlling bush encroachment because it is a

non-capital intensive technique which makes it compatible with the inherent low

economic potential of veld. From the ecological point of view fire is

recognized as being a natural factor of the environment in savanna areas of

Africa and has been occurring since time immemorial. Consequently it was decided

to conduct a research program on the use of fire in controlling bush

encroachment. The initial key question that was investigated was the role fire

can play in controlling bush encroachment in the arid savannas. A review of the

literature and personal experience led to the postulation of an hypothesis that

the role fire can play in controlling bush encorachment in these areas is to

maintain bush at an available height and in an acceptable state for browsing

animals. Generally the tree and shrub species of the savanna areas are very

resistent to fire alone due to the presence of dormant buds at the base of the

stem, from which coppicing occurs. In the arid savannas the rainfall is too low

and erratic to support frequent enough fires under grazing conditions to prevent

the regeneration of bush from coppice and seedling growth. This hypothesis was

tested in an experiment on the research farm of the University of Fort Hare. It

comprised applying an intense surface head fire to an area of sweet grassveld

moderately encroached with Acacia karoo and other woody species. The burn

resulted in 80,8 per cent of the trees and shrubs suffering a topkill of stems

and branches, of which 71,5 per cent coppiced and only 9,3 percent were killed.

Subsequent follow-up treatments were superimposed on the burnt area in

contiguous plots and comprised continuous browsing with goats, annual spring

burning and a control treatment without browsing or burning. Continuous

browsing with goats caused a marked reduction in the density and phytomass of

the bush. The annual spring burn caused an initial decrease in the density of

the bush but thereafter it again increased and eventually surpassed the original

density of the bush in this treatment. However, this treatment caused a marked

reduction in the phytomass of the bush which has been maintained at a low level

over the years. The control treatment resulted in a complete recovery of the

bush after the initial intense fire and both the density and phytomass of the

bush have far surpassed their original pre-treatment levels. These results led

to the conclusion that the hypothesis concerning the role of fire in the arid

savannas has not been disproved. The results also indicate that the program of

burning and browsing with goats can be used to control bush encroachment under

veld conditisions where a sufficiently intense fire can be obtained to cause a

significant topkill of bush. Arising from these results and conclusions the

following key questions were posed and investigated in order to provide the

technology necessary for the practical application of a system of burning and

browsing to control bush encroachment: (1) what type and intensity of fire are

required to burn down bush of a particular size and species? (2) during what