Nabokov, Nicolas [Nikolay]

New Musical Fund.

British society established on 16 April 1786 to provide relief to infirm musicians, their widows and their children. Its principal founder was the music publisher George Smart who, according to Dibdin, after being rejected for membership of the Fund for Decay'd Musicians (now the Royal Society of Musicians) read Edward Miller’s Letters in Behalf of Professors of Music, Residing in the Country … (London, 1784), deploring that fund’s policy of excluding musicians who resided outside London. Smart, together with some colleagues, decided to establish a new musical fund, admitting provincial members and not requiring members to practise music to the exclusion of other professions. (A petition of 1789 to King George III, including the signatures of numerous executives and members of the fund, is in GB-Lpro H.O. 5520/29.)

The income of the New Musical Fund was derived from donations, honorary life subscriptions of ten guineas, annual subscriptions of one guinea and the proceeds of an annual benefit concert. The fund received regular donations from the nobility, and was one of four societies that shared equally the £6000 profit of the Royal Musical Festival of 1834. The sums paid out varied; widows received £25 per annum in 1794, but only £12 in 1821. Children of deceased members were supported to the age of 14, when they were bound apprentices.

From 1815 the annual benefit concerts were conducted by the founder’s son Sir George Smart (some of his documents concerning the fund are in Lbl c.61.g.20). At the time of the final concert (1841) the fund had distributed about £20,000 (a list of expenditures is in Lbl Add.42225, ff.104v–105v); it was dissolved in 1842.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Dibdin: The Musical Tour of Mr. Dibdin (Sheffield, 1788), 160–70

J. Doane: A Musical Directory for the Year 1794 (London, c1794) [lists members of the New Musical Fund]

‘The New Musical Fund’, Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review, iii (1821), 328–35 [incl. regulations of the fund]

‘The New Musical Fund’, Musical World, xvii (1842), 118 only

‘The New Musical Fund’, Dramatic and Musical Review, i (1842), 73–4

MICHAEL KASSLER

New Order.

See Joy Division.

New Orleans.

American city in Louisiana. Founded in 1718, it was the capital of French colonial Louisiana until 1762 and then in Spanish possession until 1800. It reverted briefly to French rule before it became a US territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Few towns in the USA have developed and preserved as rich and individual a musical tradition. A primary reason for this is its position at the mouth of the Mississippi river; it was the principal harbour serving the vast country to the north, from which raw materials were exported and to which manufactured goods were imported. In the 18th century and much of the 19th, New Orleans was a northern point of the French and Spanish Caribbean trade routes, which had a profound effect on its musical culture. So too did the city’s prosperous economy: there were rich and noble families among the first settlers, who had not only a taste for culture but also the financial means to enjoy it. In the late 19th century and the early 20th the city’s musical importance shifted from opera to jazz, which had its roots in the popular music of the city’s numerous brass and string bands.

1. Opera.

2. Concert music.

3. Brass bands.

4. Jazz.

5. Publishing and recording.

6. Educational institutions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JOHN JOYCE (1–3, 5–6: 1, 2 with GWYNN SPENCER McPEEK; 3 with HENRY A. KMEN; 6 with JOHN H. BARON), J. BRADFORD ROBINSON/MIKE HAZELDINE (4)

New Orleans

1. Opera.

In cultural terms New Orleans became the Paris of America, and the early opera repertory shows a marked preference for French and Italian works. The city was the first in North America to have a permanent opera company and from 1859 to 1919 owned one of the biggest and most expensive opera houses in the Americas. Opera in New Orleans was initiated in 1792 with the building of the Théâtre de la rue St Pierre (by Louis Alexandre Henry), where the city’s first known performance of opera, Grétry’s Silvain, was given in 1796. Although documentation is scant before 1800, there are written references to two later performances, Dezède’s Blaise et Babet (1796) and Dalayrac’s Renaud d’Ast (1799). The theatre was restored and reopened by Jean Baptiste Fournier in 1804. The first documented opera production under Fournier was François Devienne’s Les visitandines (June 1805). Despite a prolific season (23 operas), Fournier was replaced in 1806 by Louis Tabary, a recent émigré from France. The ousted Fournier set up a rival theatre and opera company in a dance hall called the Salle Chinoise (later renamed the Théâtre de la rue St Philippe), and a brisk competition between these two theatres resulted in a number of performances remarkable for a provincial city of 12,000 inhabitants. The general dearth of opera houses in North America meant that many of these performances were American premières, including Grétry’s Le jugement de Midas (1806), Méhul’s Une folie (1807) and Boieldieu’s Le calife de Bagdad (1805) and Ma tante Aurore (1807). The Théâtre de la rue St Pierre closed permanently in 1810, whereas the Théâtre St Philippe remained active until it was sold in 1832.

The most important opera house in New Orleans in the first half of the 19th century was the Théâtre d’Orléans. The original edifice, begun in 1806 by Tabary, opened belatedly in October 1815, only to burn down the next summer. It was rebuilt in 1819 by a French émigré, John Davis, under whose management it thrived as an opera centre. In his first five years Davis produced 140 operas, 52 of which were American premières. Again, French composers were favoured (e.g. Boieldieu, Isouard and Dalayrac), and the performances steadily improved in quality, owing to Davis’s policy of engaging French professional singers, dancers and instrumentalists. The Théâtre d’Orléans achieved national prominence when, between 1827 and 1833, Davis led the company on six acclaimed tours of the north-eastern USA. In each of the cities visited (Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore), much of the repertory was new. John Davis was succeeded in 1837 by his son Pierre, and in 1853, by Charles Boudousquié, an American-born impresario who sustained the theatre’s reputation until his resignation in 1859. Among the American premières given by these latter directors were those of Lucia di Lammermoor (1841), La Juive (1844) and Le prophète (1850). The theatre went into decline in the 1850s and closed in 1866.

During the heyday of the Théâtre d’Orléans (1825–40) a rival impresario, James Caldwell, had produced ballad operas and Italian and French operas in English translation with an American company he brought from Virginia. He built the first two theatres in the city’s new American sector, the Camp Street Theater (1824) and St Charles Theater (1835). Between 1827 and 1833 he mounted over 100 productions at the former, including The Beggar’s Opera, The Barber of Seville and Cinderella (La Cenerentola), and Boieldieu’s Jean de Paris. In 1836 Caldwell introduced Italian opera to New Orleans with the Montresor troupe from Havana. In two successive seasons at the St Charles Theater the company performed such staples as Norma, Semiramide and Il barbiere di Siviglia.

The city’s musical importance increased with the opening of the French Opera House in 1859 (see fig.1). Built by Boudousquié, it was one of the largest and most expensive theatres in the West and one of the finest in the USA. The opera ensemble Boudousquié established there was by no means provincial: many fine singers appeared, including Julie Calvé and Adelina Patti, the tenors Lecourt, Mathieu and Escarlate, the baritones Victor and Melchisadels, and the bass Genibrel. 17 operas had their American premières there, among them Meyerbeer’s Dinorah (1861, with Patti in the title role), Massenet’s Le Cid (1890) and Saint-Saëns’s Samson et Dalila (1893). The French Opera House closed in 1913 and was purchased in 1919 by William R. Irby, who presented it to Tulane University with funds for its restoration. Its planned reopening in December 1919 was thwarted by a fire on the night of 2 December. Most of its archives were destroyed, along with its valuable collection of operatic properties, costumes, scores and parts, and innumerable books and documents relating to opera.

New Orleans remained without a permanent opera organization until 1943, when Walter Loubart founded the New Orleans Opera Association. He was succeeded as music director by Walter Herbert (1944–54), Renato Cellini (1954–64) and Knud Andersson (1964–83). Performances (with visiting artists supported by local singers and chorus) were given in the city’s Municipal Auditorium until 1973, when the New Orleans Theater of the Performing Arts was opened. The seasons (October to May) consisted of six to eight operas from the standard Italian, French and German repertory; contemporary operas were avoided, though visiting companies staged Lulu (Sarah Caldwell, 1967) and Gloriana (ENO, 1984). After 1984 declining attendance and a reduced budget resulted in shorter seasons (three to five works) and a year-to-year reliance on guest conductors. Operas are presently sung in English or in the original language with English surtitles.

New Orleans

2. Concert music.

In 18th-century New Orleans concerts were given regularly as preludes to the numerous balls for which the city was famous. The concerts followed the European plan of a long and varied programme, including orchestral works, chamber music, piano recitals, songs and choral works. A mixed group of amateur and professional instrumentalists known as the Philharmonic Society was founded in 1824 and gave frequent concerts until 1829, performing thereafter only sporadically until 1848. By the second quarter of the 19th century, a considerable number of freed black musicians trained in art music were resident in New Orleans, a few of them having studied in France. In the late 1830s a Negro Philharmonic Society of over 100 performing and non-performing members was organized to provide opportunities to hear music for those who objected to sitting in segregated sections in the public theatres. The society gave concerts and arranged for performances by visiting artists. For scores requiring larger forces the orchestra was augmented by white musicians. A small string orchestra, the Philharmonic Society of the Friends of Art, was formed in 1853 but survived less than a year because of a yellow fever epidemic. It was replaced by the Classical Musical Society, founded in 1855. Throughout the 19th century orchestral concerts were also given by the various theatre ensembles. Although, in contrast to the opera, the repertory was conservative and consisted mainly of well-established works, these concerts were of a high standard, judging by the critical reaction to them in New Orleans, New York, Boston and Philadelphia. The custom of engaging an outstanding soloist for a whole series of concerts began in the 1830s. Such artists as Ole Bull, Henry Vieuxtemps, Julie Calvé and Jenny Lind included New Orleans in their tours, and singers often remained there to join one of the theatre ensembles. Several musicians from New Orleans attained international prominence in the 19th century. Among them were Louis Moreau Gottschalk and Ernest Guiraud (1837–92), the teacher of Debussy and Dukas.

Many attempts to found an independent professional symphony orchestra between 1917 and 1934 failed for lack of financial support. The New Orleans Philharmonic SO was founded in 1936; its conductors have been Arthur Zack (1936–40), Ole Windingstad (1940–44), Massimo Freccia (1944–52), Alexander Hilsberg (1952–60), James Yestadt (1960–63), Werner Torkanowsky (1963–77), Leonard Slatkin (1977–9), Philippe Entremont (1979–86) and Maxim Shostakovich (1986–91). During Slatkin’s tenure the orchestra moved into its own hall, the restored Orpheum Theater. Entremont shortened its name to the New Orleans Symphony and, in 1982, took the orchestra to Europe. After several years of financial insecurity, the orchestra folded in 1991. It was succeeded by the Louisiana PO, a cooperative ensemble founded by former members of the New Orleans Symphony and run solely by its players and invited local citizens. The orchestra continues regular subscription concerts, children’s concerts and pop concerts, and serves both the Opera Association and local ballet companies. In 1994 its first permanent conductor, Klauspeter Seibel, was appointed.

New Orleans

3. Brass bands.

The brass or military band, frequently augmented by woodwind and percussion, has long been important to the musical life of New Orleans, a southern Catholic city with a penchant for open-air festivities. Parades and parade music became the focal point of social life in the 19th century. On Sundays parades began early, their number and fervour increasing as the day wore on. Marching to bury the dead was customary as early as 1819, when the architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe, visiting the city, described the burial parades as ‘peculiar to New Orleans alone among American cities’. By the 1830s notices of such parades often appeared in the newspapers. Members of militia companies, war veterans, freemasons, fire companies, benevolent societies, mechanics’ societies and others all marched at any time of day to bury their dead. The death of a hero anywhere was sufficient reason in New Orleans to hold a parade, or even two, as when General Lafayette died. Only during epidemics did the city experience a surfeit of brass band funerals, their mournful music mitigated by ‘gay and lightsome airs’ as they left the cemetery, a practice imitated later in such jazz numbers as Jelly Roll Morton’s Dead Man Blues. Military music flourished in New Orleans during the Civil War; in 1864 the famous bandleader Patrick S. Gilmore gave a concert there with 500 musicians.

A black marching-band tradition, which was of seminal importance in the genesis of jazz around 1900, originated in New Orleans after the Civil War (see §4 below). The presence of numerous concert-trained teachers and a plethora of military wind instruments at this time spawned a new generation of freed black bandsmen. A decade after the war there were several black wind bands fully competitive with the best white marching bands. By 1878 Kelly’s Band and the St Bernard Brass Band were recognized as ‘splendid corps of musicians, excelled by none’, and in 1885 the Excelsior Brass Band, considered the finest black band in the city, played for the formal opening of the Colored People’s Exhibit at the New Orleans Cotton States Exhibition. An important early impetus for the proliferation of black street bands was the dynamic social change of Reconstruction. The stimulus of emancipation, the prolonged presence of federal troops and military bands in the city, and the promise of social and political equality for black Americans contributed to the style and content of the music. A particular catalyst was the establishment of numerous benevolent societies at the instigation of the black Reconstruction governor P.B.S. Pinchback. These black socio-political groups sponsored marching clubs and drill teams to perform at political rallies and outdoor social events with parades, including funerals.

While the earliest black marching bands were musically trained and polished ensembles, a trend towards extempore performances with ad lib embellishments developed among the New Orleans bands of the 1890s, leading eventually to the fully improvisational smaller jazz bands. Documentation is extremely scant, but it appears that this approach to playing was influenced by the gradual infiltration into the black bands of self-taught instrumentalists, some of whom came from rough country bands in the surrounding region. The repertory was thus extended to include, in addition to military pieces, music based on song: religious spirituals and gospel songs, as well as secular ballads, reels, rags and blues. By 1900 such spontaneous performances by black bands, notably the Excelsior, Onward, Tuxedo (fig.2), Eureka and Olympia, were in great demand for all kinds of social occasion, including picnics, commercial publicity, boat excursions and dancing. Concurrently this style of band music was emulated by a number of white brass bands, notably that of ‘Papa’ Jack Laine, a mentor to many early white jazz musicians.

Black American parade-band music thrived and developed alongside its offspring, jazz, in the early decades of the 20th century. The earliest recordings of it, between 1929 and 1945, reveal still-strong ties to the march and the gospel song, with jazz-like syncopated rhythm and melodic embellishment. By 1960 the music as a thriving tradition had all but disappeared, save for occasional performances by the Olympia, re-formed by Harold Dejan. There has been a revival of sorts since 1980, by such new bands as the Dirty Dozen Brass Band and the Rebirth Jazz Band. These bands, however, are more commercially orientated, performing in clubs, festivals and for local tourist events, and they combine the older style with more recent musical idioms, such as be-bop and rhythm and blues.

New Orleans

4. Jazz.

Although elements of a jazz style developed in several urban centres of the USA, the earliest examples of the genre arose in New Orleans, and therefore the city is generally regarded as the birthplace of jazz. The appearance of this style derived from many sources (church music, syncopated coon songs, ballads, folksongs, military brass bands, work songs, blues etc.) and from the many races that inhabited New Orleans (African, Spanish and French creoles and whites of European origin, mainly Italian).

Many early black jazz musicians received their musical training in the various black brass bands that paraded for social and religious occasions, such as funerals, while others began in the ‘string bands’: small ensembles with violins and double bass, which played for dancing. Thus, the first recognized ‘jazz’ band, led by the legendary cornettist Buddy Bolden, was a combination of both these sources, playing a repertory of written marches and freely improvised blues and ragtime themes. Bolden's powerful playing, colourful personality and popularity earned him the title of ‘king’ and established a highly competitive spirit among New Orleans musicians, particularly cornet players. Early jazz bands often challenged each other to musical duels when touring the city on open wagons to advertise a function. Later cornet ‘kings’ included Freddie Keppard, King Oliver and Kid René, along with other notable cornettists such as Buddy Petit, Chris Kelly, Mutt Carey, Bunk Johnson and, of course, Louis Armstrong. Their expressive, almost vocal tones, harmonies around a written lead and use of mutes created a distinctive style that was identified with the city.

Another recognizable characteristic was the clarinet style. The fluid technique and sensual tone were the hallmarks of the city's French and Spanish creoles, and combined with black elements of intense passion and sweeping lines, this style is evident in the work of early clarinettists such as Jimmie Noone, Johnny Dodds, Sidney Bechet and, later, Barney Bigard and Edmond Hall. The percussive swing of the city's drummers was the third unique characteristic. The beat was relaxed, and the rhythmic texture varied to balance or motivate other performers. While a New Orleans band could be of any instrumentation, usually a vamping trombone, double bass (plucked rather than bowed) and banjo or guitar were added to the cornet/trumpet, clarinet and drums. The inclusion of a piano, often played by a woman, was largely a later, post-1920, development.

Jazz played by white musicians at that time remained largely independent of the black and creole development. The earliest known figure in this genre was the percussionist ‘Papa’ Jack Laine, who led various brass and ragtime bands from 1888 onwards. ‘Dixieland’ music (as it was later termed) probably reached its fullest expression in the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, a group of white New Orleans musicians formed in Chicago and led by Nick LaRocca, formerly a cornettist with Laine. The worldwide success of the group as a result of its recordings, beginning in 1917, established this brand of jazz, with its driving tempos and attenuated black instrumental effects, as a potent force in American popular music. The spread of ‘jazz’ began in about 1904, when New Orleans musicians settled in Texas and California and later in Chicago and New York. Foremost among these were the pianist-composer Jelly Roll Morton and, in 1922, Louis Armstrong. During the 1920s both musicians used the distinctive New Orleans sound to create some of the best jazz ever recorded.

Changing public taste in favour of larger orchestras during the 1930s meant small band jazz was less popular, although most New Orleans musicians were able to continue to find work. In the early 1940s there was a revival of interest in the New Orleans style and its musicians. The public acclaim of Kid Ory, Bunk Johnson, George Lewis and Oscar ‘Papa’ Celestin created a new white middle-class audience for Traditional jazz, yet the essentially backward-looking nature of ‘revival’ jazz has prevented New Orleans from reclaiming its former significance in this music. In the 1950s an indigenous style of rhythm and blues developed in the work of such musicians as Professor Longhair and Fats Domino, and in the 1970s a new young generation of black musicians formed small brass bands to perform a mixture of rhythm and blues, soul and jazz. The energy and percussive swing of these later bands retain many of the characteristics of New Orleans music. The historical interest in jazz led to the founding of the William Ransom Hogan Jazz Archive at Tulane University in 1958, bringing visitors and researchers to the city. Since 1969 New Orleans has held an annual spring music festival called the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, which features, in addition to traditional New Orleans jazz, various styles of modern jazz and a whole spectrum of allied genres. The influence of such superior indigenous musicians as Alvin Batiste and the Marsalis family has ensured that even at the end of the century New Orleans remains a potent force in the preservation and propagation of jazz.

New Orleans

5. Publishing and recording.

The thriving musical life of New Orleans enabled several music publishers to become established there. Among the earliest was Paul Emile Johns, a Polish-born emigrant from Vienna who opened a retail shop in 1830. In 1846 Johns sold his firm to William T. Mayo, who continued to print sheet music until he in turn sold the company in 1854 to Philip P. Werlein, a Bavarian emigrant known chiefly as the first Southern publisher of Dan Emmett’s Dixie (as I Wish I was in Dixie, a pirated version preceding the authorized version of 1860). Werlein issued two sheet music anthologies as serials, the Song Journal(1870s) and Werlein’s Journal of Music (1880s).

The firm of Armand Blackmar was active primarily during the Civil War years and was responsible for publishing some of the best-known music of the Confederacy, including The Bonnie Blue Flag, Maryland! My Maryland!, and an 1861 edition of Dixie. Louis Grunewald, a German emigrant who started a business in 1858, was the most prolific and versatile of all the New Orleans music publishers, extending his output in the 1880s to include religious and French Creole songs and piano compositions in the then popular ‘Mexican’ style. Both the Werlein and Grunewald firms continued into the early 20th century, but by the 1920s music publishing in New Orleans had declined.

The first recordings of New Orleans music were by the Louisiana Phonograph Company, which recorded white and black artists as early as 1891. The earliest jazz recorded in the city was done by northern companies between 1924 and 1928; the first significant locally produced recordings were made during the New Orleans jazz revival of the 1940s, chiefly on the Southland label (1949–69). Cosimo Recording (1945–69), one of the leading recording studios for the national rhythm-and-blues industry by the mid-1950s, cut records for such artists as Fats Domino, Bobby ‘Blue’ Bland, Big Joe Turner, Lloyd Price and Ray Charles. Among companies established since 1960 was the short-lived All-For-One (1961–4); two major studios, Seasaint and Ultrasonic, opened in 1970.

New Orleans

6. Educational institutions.

The music department in Newcomb College of Tulane University was founded in 1909 by Leon Maxwell, who served as chairman until 1952. The department offers BA and MA degrees in history, theory and composition, and BFA and MFA degrees in piano and other instruments and in singing. Distinguished teachers have included Giuseppe Ferrata, Gilbert Chase, Howard E. Smither and Charles Hamm. Among the university’s libraries, the William Ransom Hogan Jazz Archive is important as a repository of early American jazz (prints, recordings, photographs and taped interviews), and the Louisiana Division of the Howard-Tilton Memorial Library includes American sheet music and documents pertaining to the southern states. The Latin American Library is the second largest archive of its kind in the USA and contains many musical items. The Amistad Research Center, located at Tulane, is one of the most inclusive archives of ethnic minorities in America, especially black American, and there are significant musical documents.

The Loyola University College of Music, founded in 1931 as a music conservatory, retains its emphasis on performance, which is reflected in its most distinguished alumni, the singers Norman Treigle, Marguerite Piazza, Harry Theyard, Charles Anthony and Anthony Laciura. It offers BM, BME, MM and MME degrees in performance and music therapy. The music department at Dillard University, one of three black collegiate institutions in New Orleans, was established in 1936 with Frederick Douglass Hall as its first chairman; Hall established the department’s policy of emphasizing black music, especially spirituals, in its curriculum. Among its most distinguished alumni are the composer Roger Donald Dickerson and the jazz pianist Ellis Marsalis. The music department of the New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary was founded in 1919, primarily for the training of church organists and choirmasters. Undergraduate programmes are also offered at Xavier University (music department founded 1934), for black Catholics, and at the University of New Orleans (music department founded 1963), which has recently established a degree in jazz performance. The Delgado Trade School was reorganized in the 1980s as the Delgado Community College and offers an undergraduate degree in music. The New Orleans Centre for the Creative Arts (NOCCA) is one of America's leading high schools for training musicians; among its graduates are Wynton Marsalis and Harry Connick jr. There are substantial musical holdings in the libraries of Tulane University, the Theological Seminary, and at Louisiana State University.

New Orleans

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G.S. McPeek)

L.M. Gottschalk: Notes of a Pianist (Philadelphia, 1881); ed. J. Behrend (New York, 1964)

G.W. Gable: ‘The Dance in Place Congo’, Century Magazine, xxxi (1885–6), 512–32

G. King: New Orleans: the Place and the People (New York, 1895/R)

J.G. de Baroncelli: La théâtre français à la Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans, 1906)

J.G. de Baroncelli: L’opéra français de la Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans, 1914)

D.B. Fischer: ‘The Story of New Orleans’s Rise as a Music Center’, Musical America, xix/19 (1914), 3

O.G.T. Sonneck: Early Opera in America (New York, 1915/R)

J.S. Kendall: History of New Orleans (Chicago and New York, 1922)

L. Gafford: A History of the St. Charles Theater in New Orleans, 1835–43 (diss., U. of Chicago, 1930; part pubd Chicago, 1932)

J.E. Winston: ‘The Free Negro in New Orleans, 1803–1860’, Louisiana Historical Quarterly, xxi (1938), 1075

A.L.W. Stahl: ‘The Free Negro in Ante-bellum Louisiana’, Louisiana Historical Quarterly, xxv (1942), 301–96

J.S. Kendall: ‘New Orleans’ Negro Minstrels’, Louisiana Historical Quarterly, xxx (1947), 128

J.S. Kendall: ‘New Orleans Musicians of Long Ago’, Louisiana Historical Quarterly, xxxi (1948), 130

J.S. Kendall: The Golden Age of the New Orleans Theater (Baton Rouge, LA, 1952/R)

G.S. McPeek: ‘New Orleans as an Opera Center’, Musical America, lxxiv/4 (1954), 25, 136, 226 only

O. Keepnews and B. Grauer: A Pictorial History of Jazz: People and Places from New Orleans to Modern Jazz (New York, 1955, 2/1966/R)

W. Russell and S.W. Smith: ‘New Orleans Music’, Jazzmen, ed. F. Ramsey jr and C.E. Smith (London, 1957)

G.H. Yerbury: ‘Concert Music in Early New Orleans’, Louisiana Historical Quarterly, xl (1957), 95

S.B. Charters: Jazz: New Orleans, 1885–1957 (Belleville, NJ, 1958, 2/1963/R)

R.J. La Gardeur jr: The First New Orleans Theatre, 1792–1803 (New Orleans, 1963)

H.A. Kmen: Music in New Orleans: the Formative Years, 1791–1841 (Baton Rouge, LA, 1966)

M.T. Williams: Jazz Masters of New Orleans (New York, 1967/R)

A. Rose and E. Souchon: New Orleans Jazz: a Family Album (Baton Rouge, LA, 1967, enlarged 3/1984)

G. Schuller: Early Jazz: its Roots and Musical Development (New York, 1968/R)

E. Borneman: ‘Jazz and the Creole Tradition’, Jazzforschung/Jazz Research, i (1969), 99–112

R.J. Martinez: Portraits of New Orleans Jazz: its Peoples and Places (New Orleans, 1971)

H.A. Kmen: ‘The Roots of Jazz and the Dance in Place Congo: a Reappraisal’, YIAMR, viii (1972), 5–16

L. Panzeri: Louisiana Composers (New Orleans, 1972)

J.V. Buerkle and D. Barker: Bourbon Street Black: the New Orleans Black Jazzman (New York,1973)

T. Stagg and C. Crump, eds.: New Orleans, the Revival: a Tape and Discography of Traditional Jazz Recorded in New Orleans by New Orleans Bands, 1937–72 (Dublin, 1973)

J. Baron: ‘Paul Emile Johns of New Orleans: Tycoon, Musician, and Friend of Chopin’,IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 246–50

J. Broven: Walking to New Orleans: the Story of New Orleans Rhythm & Blues (Bexhill-on-Sea, 1974, 2/1977)

J. Joyce: ‘New Orleans Jazz: a Matter of Tradition’, New Orleans Review, iv/l (1974), 27

A. Rose: Storyville, New Orleans, being an Authentic, Illustrated Account of the Notorious Red-Light District (University, AL, 1974)

L.B. Levy: The Formalization of New Orleans Jazz Musicians: a Case Study of Organizational Change (diss., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State U., 1976)

P.C. Boudreaux: Music Publishing in New Orleans in the Nineteenth Century (thesis, Louisiana State U., 1977)

W.J. Schafer: Brass Bands and New Orleans Jazz (Baton Rouge, LA, 1977)

D.M. Marquis: In Search of Buddy Bolden, First Man of Jazz (Baton Rouge, LA, 1978)

L. Ostransky: Jazz City: the Impact of our Cities on the Development of Jazz (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978)

R. Palmer: A Tale of Two Cities: Memphis Rock and New Orleans Roll (Brooklyn, NY, 1979)

J. Baron: Piano Music from New Orleans 1851–1898 (New York, 1980)

K. Demetz: ‘Minstrel Dancing in New Orleans’ Nineteenth Century Theaters’, Southern Quarterly, xx/2 (1982), 28–39

F. Turner: Remembering Song: Encounters with the New Orleans Jazz Tradition (New York, 1982)

J. Berry, J. Foose and T. Jones: Up from the Cradle of Jazz: New Orleans Music since World War II (Athens, GA, 1986)

J. Baron: ‘Music in New Orleans, 1718–1792’, American Music, v/3 (1987), 282–90

J. Hassinger: ‘Close Harmony: Early Jazz Styles in the Music of the New Orleans Boswell Sisters’, Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. E. Koskoff (New York, 1987), 195–201

K. Rose: I Remember Jazz: Six Decades among the Great Jazzmen (Baton Rouge, LA, 1987)

H.C. Boyer: ‘Tracking the Tradition: New Orleans Sacred Music’, Black Music Research Journal, viii (1988), 135–47

L. Gushee: ‘How the Creole Band Came to Be’, ibid., 83–100

K. McKnight: ‘Researching New Orleans Rhythm and Blues’, ibid., 113–34

M. Sullivan: ‘Composers of Color of Nineteenth-Century New Orleans: the History behind the Music’, ibid., 51–82

R. Wang: ‘Researching the New Orleans-Chicago Jazz Connection: Tools and Methods’, ibid., 101–12

H. Eskew: ‘German Contributions to the Musical Culture of New Orleans’, Southern Quarterly, xxvii/2 (1989–90), 25–39

A. Lemmon: ‘New Orleans Popular Sheet Music Imprints: the Latin Tinge prior to 1900’, ibid., 41–57

M.S. Morrow: ‘Singing and Drinking in New Orleans: the Social and Musical Functions of Nineteenth-Century Männerchöre’, ibid., 5–24

W.C. Fields: ‘Theodore La Hache and Music in New Orleans, 1846–1869’, American Music, viii/3 (1990), 326–50

C. Jerde: ‘Black Music in New Orleans: a Historical Overview’, Black Music Research Journal, x (1990), 18–26

W. Carter: Preservation Hall: Music from the Heart (Oxford, 1991)

J. Johnson: ‘New Orleans’s Congo Square: an Urban Setting for Early Afro-American Culture Formation’, Louisiana History, xxxii (1991), 117–57

C.E. Kinzer: ‘The Tio Family and its Role in the Creole-of-Color Music Traditions of New Orleans’, Second Line, xliii/3 (1991), 18–27

R.M. Sands: ‘Carnival Celebration in Africa and the New World: Junkanoo and the Black Indians of Mardi Gras’, Black Music Research Journal, xi (1991), 75–92

B.B. Bisonette: The Jazz Crusade: the Inside Story of the Great New Orleans Jazz Revival of the 1960’s (Bridgeport, CT, 1992)

J. Belsom: Opera in New Orleans (New Orleans, 1993)

M. Lemmon: ‘Te Deum laudamus: Music in St. Louis Cathedral from 1725 to 1844’, Cross, Crozier, and Crucible: a Volume Celebrating the Bicentennial of a Catholic Diocese in Louisiana, ed. G.R. Conrad (New Orleans, 1993), 489–504

G. Lichtenstein and L. Dankner: Musical Gumbo: the Music of New Orleans (New York, 1993)

S.F. Starr: Bamboula: the Life and Times of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (New York, 1995)

D.M. Guion: ‘Felippe-Cioffe: a Trombonist in Antebellum America’, American Music, xiv (1996), 1–41

J.H. Baron: ‘New Orleans Composers of the 1990s’, Perspectives on American Music since 1950, ed. J.R. Heintze (New York, 1999), 429–58