Negotiating Culture Space and Identity: The Translation and Analysis of Tongzhi and Ku-er Fiction

5.3 Sociological Approaches to Frame and Framing

In the same way that the literary text is subject to (para)textual conventions, social movements are also produced within and constrained by cultural conventions and sets of belief. The topic of social movement recurs in this paper, where the discussion on diasporic communities in Chapter 4 can be seen as examples. Looking at movement from a framing perspective however, is to understand both the structure and component from which it is formed. The introductory study by Della Porta and Diani offer a general overview of framing in political movements. In their evaluation of frame, the two scholars acknowledge the influence of frame from both the schema of interpretation and Goffman’s ‘organisation of experience’. Fundamentally, Della Porta and Diani argue that frame analysis enables the understanding, the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’ of political action. As they state:

Frame analysis allows us to capture the process of the attribution of meaning which lies behind the explosion of any conflict. In fact, symbolic production enables us to attribute to events and behaviours, of individuals or groups, a meaning which facilitates the activation of mobilization. (Della Porta and Diani 2006: 74)
Della Porta and Diani outline the different strategies of social framing. There are three stages to the framing process: this includes the identification of a problem, possible strategies of resolution and motivation for acting out these strategies. It is a potential way to evaluate the ‘cause’ and ‘effect’ of political action, frame analysis can lead to a better understanding of social movements.
Scholars like Benford and Snow (2000) for example, have extensively discussed the concept of frame in relation to the formation of social movements. Returning to Genette’s idea of paratextual frame as a site for ‘strategy’ (1991: 261), Benford and Snow see frame as a site for political strategy. The two scholars specifically coin the term ‘collective action frame’ when describing the function of the social frame:
This [collective action frame] denotes an active, processual phenomenon that implies agency and contention at the level of reality construction. It is active in the sense that something is being done, and processual in the sense of a dynamic, evolving process. (Benford and Snow 2000: 614).

Benford and Snow’s description of the collective action frame suggests that frame can be manipulated by a political agency or ideology. The idea that frame can play a role in ‘reality construction’ is significant, because it indicates that a frame can have social or political consequences. Frame functions not only in the organisation of a situation (or as Benford and Snow point out, the negotiation of a “shared understanding of a problematic situation”), but as an agent of change (2000: 615). Terms that signify “severity, urgency, efficacy and propriety’ in nuclear disarmament movement discourses for example are cited by Benford and Snow as examples of social frames seeking to encourage collective action and individual participation (2000: 617). The latter aspect is particularly significant in the formation of a collective action frame, as action requires participants who are sufficiently mobilised to take risks.

Benford and Snow note that frame can act as a ‘correspondence’ point between the individual and the collective social movement/ identity. One of the key concepts in their definition of the collective action frame is ‘alignment’, Benford and Snow argue that it is in the interest of social movements to align their goals and interpretive frames with potentially interested or prospective parties (2000: 624). This can manifest itself through affiliation with other similar movements, or attempts to attract individuals sharing similar ideological positions. The notion of collective identity itself can be seen as a form of alignment. Benford and Snow mention the rise of identity politics (feminism, Black Panther and gay and lesbian movements in late 60s America for example), demonstrating that social movements can form and promote a collective political identity. These groups are united through a shared common cause, creating a collective identity (i.e. ‘feminist’, ‘gay’ and ‘lesbian’) and employing group dissent to challenge the status quo.

The formation of tongzhi and ku-er culture in Taiwan discussed in section 4 is an example of this process of framing, in which new collective identities are born as the result of the alignment of different minority movements. These examples correspond with Benford and Snow’s conclusion that identity construction is an important aspect of collective participation, and can lead to the: “enlargement of personal identity in movement contexts” (2000: 631-2).

As Benford and Snow’s research demonstrates, frames and framing can have an impact both personally and socially. However, it is important to note that their definition of frames and framing relating to collective action frames is not one of fixed, stable entities: collective action frames are always influenced and constrained by their surrounding cultural contexts. The two scholars consider frame to be forever transformative, driven by the changes in cultural and social history:
[…] framing is a dynamic, on going process. But this process does not occur in a structural, cultural vacuum. Rather, framing processes are affected by a number of elements of the socio – cultural context in which they are embedded. (Benford and Snow 2000: 628)

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The ‘dynamic, on going’ process of framing indicates that social frames are always changing. There is no definitive, singular ‘version’ of the social frame because frames are constantly being replaced and challenged. Della Porta and Diani (2006), in their summary of social framing, also note that there has been a revision in the perception of the social frame as a fixed cognitive structure. The duo cites cross cultural and historical studies on social movements (Ferree, Gamson Gerhards and Rucht 2002, Steinberg 1999)¹⁰ as illustrations, noting that the discursive dynamics of social movements evolve between cultures and change over time (2006: 86). Not only do frames change but also framing activities. Apart from noting the fluidity of social frames, Benford and Snow suggest that: “the framing processes typically reflect wider cultural continuities and changes” (2000: 628). It can be argued that frames and framing, like translated texts and translation are culturally dependent, as much culturally influenced as culturally influential.
5.4 Translational Approaches to Frame and Framing
As noted in the previous section, Benford’s and Snow’s interpretation of frame suggests parallels with the process of translation. Just as framing does not occur in a cultural vacuum, neither does translation. As the much cited quote from Bassnett and Trivedi states: “Translation does not happen in a vacuum, but in a continuum, it is not an isolated act” (1992: 2). In the same way that framing can be a culturally and politically engaged process, so can translation. As the following analysis (see chapter 6) of Fran Martin’s Angelwings (2003) will demonstrate, the translated text acts not only as a medium for the transference of information between cultures, but also has the potential to become a point of reference for different movements. Translated text itself can be seen as a form of ‘frame’. Returning to Goffman, one of the examples of keying that he cites is translation. According to him, translation can be viewed either as a ‘second version’ of the original text, or a transformation, or ‘key’ of the original frame (1974: 79). To repeat Goffman’s description of ‘keying’ (see section 5.1, p.23), translation can be considered as part of this framing process, work ‘modelled’ on original texts but at the same time “isn’t quite that”. This ambiguity distinguishes translated text, leaving it open to change and transformation.
Following this line of argument, Baker (2005) looks at how political narratives are ‘framed’ in their subsequent translations. She views the translated text as an “interpretive frame” (205: 107) because a translation can be viewed as an interpretation of the text. Although Baker does not have her own definition of frame and framing, she follows Benford and Snow’s approach to framing as an “active strategy”: frame implies agency and participation in the “construction of reality” (2005: 105). Looking particularly at the translation/interpretation of texts produced in political conflict, Baker notes that the linguistic and paralinguistic ‘frame’ of the translated text reflects the socio–political frame of the translated context/translator. As she states, translators and interpreters “face a basic ethical choice with every assignment: to produce existing ideologies […] or to dissociate themselves from those ideologies” (2005: 105). Baker analyses the different framing strategies employed by translators in their reportage of conflict, noting that: “the same set of events can be framed in different ways to promote competing narratives” (2005: 107). This can be conveyed through subtle nuances within the translated text. Baker cites the translation of an Osama Bin Laden tape in 2004 by both the Arabic television station Al-Jezzera and the Israeli funded media station MEMRI as a case in point. While Al-Jezzera chosen to interpret ‘wilaya’ as ‘state’ in terms of a non specific nation/country, MEMRI chose to translate ‘wilaya’ as meaning the United States (Baker 2005: 108 - 9). While the difference between the translations may appear minor, the meaning is vastly different. In al-Jezzera’s translation, Bin Laden can be seen to be issuing a warning to any, non specific states, whereas MEMRI implies the threat specifically targets the U.S. As Baker points out, the ambiguity in the lexical meaning of wilaya is exploited to serve a political purpose. In MEMRI’s case the release of the translation coincided with the U.S presidential election, suggesting a political motive (2005: 109). To summarise, the linguistic frame of the original can be implicitly manipulated to fit a specific social frame.
Equally, translators can promote their political dispositions in the paratextual frame of the translated text. Baker (2005) takes the translation of a collection of short stories from Hong Kong by the translator Martha Cheung (1998) as an example as someone who reveals her cultural disposition through her use of paratext. Baker analyses Cheung’s use of language in her paratexual commentaries in detail, and notes Cheung’s emphasis of her translation as ‘new’, ‘now’ and the repeated reference to ‘us’ (Baker 2005: 133-4). Baker attributes Cheung’s choice of words to her desire to position her translation within a specific political context: establish itself as the new voice of ‘authentic’ Hong Kong, both reacting against and setting itself apart from the previous, stereotypical Hong Kong translations (2005: 133).
In a separate study, Jones and Arsenjevic (2005) evaluate the ‘metatexts’ surrounding the translation of poetry from Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH). Considering factors such as book reviews and academic essays, the two scholars see ‘metatext’ as an opportunity to make “explicit statements” on the translation (2005: 82). In one of the anthologies of BH poetry that Jones and Arsenjevic analyse, the two detect an anti nationalist stance. The translation in question, Scar on the Stone (1998), edited by Chris Algee does not contain any overtly nationalist poems because the editor boldly states in his introduction that he has yet to encounter ‘any good ones’ (cited in Jones and Arsenjevic, 2005: 83). From the example, we can acknowledge that paratext, or the physical frame of the text offers a platform from which the translator can explain and justify his work.

As Baker’s (2005) and Jones and Arsenjevic’s (2005) studies demonstrate, translated text exists within an ideological dimension. There is a theoretical difference between Baker with Jones and Arsenjevic’s studies interpretations of the translational frame. Baker focuses more on the manipulative aspects of (re)framing, where the translated frame is used as a tool to distort the reader’s interpretations of conflict. Compared to Baker, Jones and Arsenjevic, give more positive examples in the use of ‘metatext’ where (in the case of their study) the translated frame can become a platform for minority dissent. In addition, Jones and Arsenjevic argue that translation can have a resonatory effect between minority voices: “Translation […] can create a global space where these voices can be heard, and can hear kindred voices from other countries” (2005: 88). Expanding on Jones and Arsenjevic’s proposal, the textual resonance that translated texts may inspire can also have a ‘real life’ effect, leading back to Benford’s and Snow’s (2002) idea of a collective action frame: radicalising a readership to social or political activity. The boundaries between the literary, social and translational frame in this sense, clearly overlap.

5.5 Conclusion
The concept of ‘frame’ in translation can be summarised in two parts. The first, as proposed by Goffman (1974) in his concept of ‘keying’, is of the translated text ‘modelling’ itself on the pre-existing frame of the original text: to a greater or lesser extent, subject that translated frame to the linguistic and contextual constraints of the source text. Furthermore, Frow (1986) and Genette (1997) note that frame acts as the metaphorical and physical threshold to the text, dividing the fictional aspect of the text from the reality of the world. The translated text can be seen as part of this threshold, not only between texts but also between cultures. The second aspect is the use of frames to incite action. As suggested earlier in the ‘breaking’ of the frame by Goffman (1974), there is also an element of human participation in the creation of framework. The overviews by Benford and Snow (2002) and in addition Baker (2005), Jones and Arsenjevic (2005) demonstrate that frame concerns around not only experience, but also participation and formation of social events. While the passive aspect of framing constrains, the active aspect has the power to liberate.
Chapter 6: Methodology

The methodology looks at the criteria of the two tongzhi and ku-er texts chosen for analysis, and by extension the approaches used to look at these texts. In addition, the choice of extra-textual materials used to support the textual analysis will also be elaborated. Fundamentally, Notes of a Desolate Man (1999) and Angelwings: Contemporary Queer Fiction from Taiwan are selected because they are part of the small canon of translated Taiwanese tongzhi and ku-er fiction. Alongside Pai Hsien-yung’s Niezi (translated as Crystal Boys by Howard Goldblatt), the three texts so far are the only Taiwanese translations in English that deal explicitly with the subject of queer and same sex desire. While Pai Hsien-yung’s novel Crystal Boys portrays the vibrant and strictly underground gay community during martial law Taiwan, Angelwings and Notes of a Desolate Man document a postmodern, identity politics influenced formation of tongzhi and ku-er identity. The aforementioned texts therefore can be seen to compliment one another, periodically and thematically. Furthermore, both Angelwings and Notes of a Desolate Man provide a literary interpretation of identity in translation, a textual manifestation of the macroscopic themes discussed in this thesis. While the significance of these two texts will be elaborated in chapter (insert number), it can be argued that despite their differences, the two translated texts do have an overarching thematic correspondence.

6.1 Approach
The structure of this thesis can broadly be divided into two sections. The first is macroscopic topics on translation, identity (specifically different strands of identity that can be considered to be ‘minority’), identity politic movements and frame. The second is the niche topics of tongzhi and ku-er literature and tongzhi and ku-er translation. Each of the topics in the first section are potentially broad strands of discussion. Rather than attempting to define the aforementioned concepts, they are discussed in relation of their relevance to tongzhi and ku-er literature, and vice versa. The literature cited in this thesis looks at tongzhi and ku-er fiction from a variety of perspectives – from globalized phenomenon to minority identities. Conversely, the themes that emerge in the stories can be seen as the textual manifestations of the broader aspects of cultural transformation and translation.
Angelwings and Notes of a Desolate Man are textual frames in which the links to the macroscopic aspects are discussed. Textual analysis of these textual frames constitutes in looking at the source and translated text, and comparing the shifts and changes made by the translator. Paratextual elements are included to round up the discussion, providing comprehensive information on the translated text. The one theoretical approach that shadows the textual analysis is the concept of frame and framing. Fundamentally, the source and translated texts are both frames, and the process of translation by the translator can be seen as framing. How the textual frames are construed, and what changes are made provides points for discussion. While the definition of frame and framing is broad, this gives the textual analysis certain flexibility as it is not restricted from a singular approach, but instead can utilize different strands of discussion relating to frame and framing.
6.2 Textual Selection
As stated in the title of the anthology, Angelwings is described as “Contemporary Queer Fiction from Taiwan.” The stories in the anthology are organized chronologically, covering the span of Taiwanese tongzhi and ku-er fiction published from 1990 – 98 - the most prolific period of tongzhi and ku-er fiction production. The three short stories chosen for analysis in this thesis: Bodhisattava Incarnate by Chu Tien-Wen (1990), Platonic Hair by Qiu MiaoJin (1991) and Searching for the Lost Wings of an Angel (1995) by Chen Xue are representative of the key texts of tongzhi and ku-er literature. Bodhisattava Incarnate, for example, can be seen as the first short story, post Pai Hsien-yung, that documents male tongzhi desire. The theme of fin-de siècle decadence, as well as the dense, multi-cultural intertextuality that characterizes Chu writing is already evident in the short story. In Chu Wei-chang’s Mandarin language tongzhi anthology, he mentions that the author Chu Tien-wen describes her novel Notes of a Desolate Man as a ‘correction’, ‘continuation’ and ‘expansion’ on the story Bodhisattava Incarnate.
Nevertheless, as Chu Wei-chang also notes, Bodhisattava Incarnate is itself a complete and successful work of fiction. Not only is the translation of Bodhisattva Incarnate by Fran Martin discussed independently, it compliments Golblatt and Sylvia Li-Chun Lin’s Notes of a Desolate Man. When faced with the ‘challenging’ writing style¹¹ of Chu Tien-wen, the way the translators approach the language, and which themes emerge from their translation provide points of interest. Within the context of the translated text, especially in Martin’s anthology, the short story is also a good introductory point to ease the translated text readers into tongzhi and ku-er writing. As she states in the foreword, Bodhisattva Incarnate evokes the ‘complex psychic world of a homosexual intellectual immersed in the alienating and rapidly transforming cultures of late twentieth century Taiwan’ (2003: 39). While only a brief description, it nevertheless suggests to the reader that the story does lead the readers into the context of post-martial law Taiwan. In this thesis, Bodhisattva Incarnate is for this reason placed as the first story for analysis, connecting the textual analysis with the macroscopic topics on cultural and literary transformation.
The other two short stories selected, Platonic Hair and Searching for the Lost Wings of an Angel are written specifically from a female tongzhi and ku-er perspective. Platonic Hair by Qiu Maojin, like Bodhisattava Incarnate, was part of the first wave of writing on same sex desire that become defined as tongzhi/ku-er writing. Whereas Searching for the Lost Wings of an Angel by Chen Xue was published later than Platonic Hair. Chen being part of the group of contemporary writers who identifies as ku-er, including Hong Lin and Chi Tai Wei. What both stories share, is an unorthodox portrayal of female sexuality and identity. The defiance against the confinements of traditional, supposedly ‘natural’ femininity corresponds with the radical lesbian and queer politics discussed in this section. In my own interview with Martin, she describes herself to be an admirer of Qui and Chen’s writing, and furthermore, sees herself as a peer of Chen as they are both from the same generation. In this respect, the stories chosen from a persona point of view with the translator, and illuminate the culturally interactive approach to translation that is a recurring theme in this thesis.
The three short stories form the diverse selection of tongzhi and ku-er fiction in Angelwings, including female, male and transgender tongzhi and ku-er stories. This makes Angelwings both an unique and significant translated text, unprecedented in its tongzhi/ku-er friendly approach and the scope of literary texts chosen for translation. The comprehensive paratextual materials that Martin provides support for the translated text readers in reading the text (the choice and use of paratext will be discussed in the next section). It can be said that on the whole, Angelwings is an essential text when looking at tongzhi and ku-er writing, and provides the core to the discussion in this thesis.
Lastly, the translated novel Notes of a Desolate Man by Howard Goldblatt concludes the textual analysis. As previously mentioned, the novel is an elaboration on the short story Bodhisattva Incarnate. The original Notes of a Desolate Man is widely considered to be part of the canonical text of tongzhi/ku-er fiction. The translated text by Howard Goldblatt and Sylvia Chun Lin is also one of the more high profile Taiwanese literatures in translation. Goldblatt himself is one of the most prolific and well-known translator of Chinese and Taiwanese literature. The status of the source and translated text makes Notes of a Desolate Man an appropriate choice for textual analysis. Goldblatt and Sylvia Chun Lin’s translation appears more ambiguous and opaque compared to Martin’s academic approach. The ambiguity of the translation can be seen to offer another interpretation of tongzhi and ku-er identity – the extent of which will be discussed further in its respective section.
To summarise the textual selection, both Angelwings and Notes of a Desolate Man are essential texts when looking at tongzhi and ku-er translations. Despite the small selection of texts available, the scope of interpretation – as will be illustrated in the textual analysis is surprisingly broad. The paratextual materials available serve to support the assertion regarding the importance of the texts selected.
6.3 Paratextual Materials
This section aims to look at the use of paratextual materials, for definitions of paratext refer to section (insert chapter number here). In this thesis, paratext is discussed as part of the translated text, concluding the discussion on the translated text. To briefly recap how paratext is used in relation to the translation: paratext ‘frames’ the text - providing the additional or supporting information about the text to the reader. The way this frame is construed however, is influenced by the translator. As paratext can encompass any information relating to the text, that which can be categorized as paratext is itself broad and open ended. The paratextual elements discussed in this thesis, therefore, are those that the translator has directly included: the introduction, footnotes and after-words, as well as external factors such as interview with the translator.
The comprehensive paratextual information provided by Martin in the translated text helps to familiarize the reader with tongzhi and ku-er culture. This includes an introduction by Martin that attempts to define Taiwanese tongzhi and ku-er literature, and an introductory passage before each short story. Martin also provides footnotes for the specifically Taiwanese/Chinese references in the text. The visibility of the translator in the paratextual materials provides points of interest in this thesis. The paratextual elements not only guide the readers in reading the translated text, they also illuminate the translation process. An additional paratextual element included in this thesis is my interview with Fran Martin from 2009. The interview questions are formulated to be a companion to the discussion on Martin’s translation agency. The interview reveals Martin’s translational process, and her involvement with Taiwanese tongzhi and ku-er movements, and the rationale behind her selection of the texts. It can also be seen as extension on the afterword: Martin commenting and reflecting on her translation six years after its publication. The extra textual materials on the whole are significant in shaping the discussion on Angelwings.
In contrast, paratextual materials are not used as extensively in the analysis of Notes of a Desolate Man. Nevertheless, paratext still plays a role in providing the reader with information about the text. Goldblatt and Sylvia Li Chun Lin also provide a translator’s foreword and footnote to the text. The foreword and footnotes briefly outline the challenges that arise when translating Chu’s writing, and explicates specific cultural references in the source text. Although the paratextual element does not feature as prominently in Notes of a Desolate Man, that in itself can be a decision by the translators – as part of the translator’s strategy to present a certain type of translated text. It should be noted here that I was unable to conduct a personal interview with Goldblatt or Li Chun Lin, therefore their translation agency is discussed through other mediums such as the translator’s foreword and footnotes.