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- 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy
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Reference Name of the Proposal Type of legislative body drawn by lot Muller & al. 1972 Random Legislature Lower House of parliament Horn 1980
National legislative body Cannac 1983
French National Assembly Barber 1984
Legislative Body local and regional Burnheim 1985
Legislative Committees local Callenbach & Phillips 1985
House of Representatives of the EUA Martin 1990
All the legislative bodies Long 1996
All the legislative bodies Bailey 1997
National legislative bodies Barnett & Carty 1998
House of Lords Schmidt 2001
National legislative body Schmitter & al. 2004A
Legislative body at European level Sutherland 2004
House of Commons - United Kingdom Mc Cormick 2006
National législatif the USA Sintomer 2007 Senate
French Senate Buchstein & Hein 2009 Loskammer Second chamber of the European Parliament Peonidis 2009
Part of Parliament Aguileo Cancio 2010
Spanish Parliament Zakaras 2010
Parliaments of the federated States the USA Dryzek et al. 2011
World Assembly citizen Pluchino et al. 2011
Parliament Illustration 14: Summary of proposals concerning the sortition of legislative items. 113
Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? 5.1Hypothesis The presentation of all of the texts of the corpus has shown that there are interactions and discussions between the authors describing, exploring and proposing the draw in politics. Can we go further, however, and see in this movement the emergence of a current of thought or even a theory consistent within the political philosophy? Three authors at least have characterized the evolution of the field of publication in this sense. The first seems to have been Snider (2007, 1) who has proposed the designation of Yale School of Democratic Reform in so doing mainly refers to the work of Dahl and then of Fishkin, Leib and O'Leary, all four having taught and/or studied in this university and being authors - as we have seen - proposals for reforms based on the employment of the draw. Buchstein (2009a, 390) has for its part offers the term aleatorische Demokratietheorie it is-a-say theory of democracy aleatoire69. These two designations have, however, been confined to the field of the selection in the context of posts, mainly deliberative processes. Stone (2009, 375) is the third author who has offered an interpretation of the corpus in global terms without giving him the name of theorie70. Now we will test this hypothesis by analysing the results of the study scientometrics of the corpus presented in beginning of chapter (cf. p. 94 et seq. ). 69Buchstein (2009a, 390) : " Angesichts dieser Konstellation lassen sich die call Varianten von zufallsgenerierten Gremien gleichsam als polling Bausteinen eines Demokratiemodells verstehen, das zwischen dem partizipativen Impuls of voluntaristischen Modells und dem rationalen Anspruchsniveau of epistemischen Modells eine Brucke ressective. Angesicht der in technischer Hinsicht vom Zentralen Busbahnhof - Rolle of Faktors Zufall in diesem Bruckenschlag Biergarten bietet alles sich dafur die Bezeichnung "aleatorische Demokratietheorie" year. ≪ 70Stone (2009a, 375-376) : " Within the past twenty-five years, there has been a surge of interest in the use of random selection techniques, gold lotteries, in decision making. Some authors have suggested that distributive justice may mandate the use of lotteries to allocate scarce customer servicecheck benefits and burdens. Others have advocated the incorporation of lotteries into democratic decision-making processes ... A handful of authors have attempted to survey the entire field of potential worn for lotteries …Scholars in a variety of disciplines - including political science, philosophy, economics, and law - thus now approved that lotteries may be more important than conventional wisdom suggests. ≪ 114 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? 5.2Of bibliometric indicators that confirm the hypothesis 5.2 .1an academic interest for the draw clearly in progress The results presented in the following illustrations (cf. illustrations 15 and 16, p. 115) are used to make three observations. First, since the first text of after-War published in 1956, at least 318 texts have tackled the subject of the prize draw in politics. Among these texts can be regarded as a group of 254 form a corpus more united and center around the problems. Secondly, half of the texts of this corpus was published between 1956 and 1990 either in 47 years and the second half in the past 20 years ; not less than a third of them has even appeared in the last 10 years which is the clear sign of an acceleration of the number of publications on the printout. Thirdly, regardless of this evolution, there are cycles of approximately five to eight years which the peaks are located in 1976, 1984, 1991, 1998, and 2006 to 2009. This last year is also by far the most productive of the period (14 texts in the corpus). Some of the cycles are explained, as we have seen previously, by the existence of academic discussions by articles interposed. This is the case for example of 1976 which corresponds to the development of a debate in response to the proposal of Survival Lottery made by Harris in 1975, torque has a debate within the rational choice on the proposal of Zeckhauser of 1969. 1944 1946
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0 5 10 15 20 25 Database CorpusIllustration 15: Evolution of the number of annual publications. 115 Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics 1944 1946
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Database CorpusIllustration 16: cumulation of annual publications. 5.2 .2a growing intertextuality, The analysis of citations gives three major results. First, as shown in the illustrations 1 and 18 (cf. infra, p. 117), 50% of cross-citations are on the last decile of time and 75% on the last third of the period, a sign of strong acceleration of the number of cross-citations. Then, it is noted that this acceleration is maintained in relative terms, when we reported the number of citations to the number of books (see illustrations 19 and 20, p. 117). In the period 1966-1986, the number of publications is proportionately larger than these cross-citations. Has the reverse on the end of the period, the number of cross-citations exceed in proportion the number of book which means that the authors are turning to the inside of the network of citations; they rely more and more on the other authors. Finally, the rate of intercitation71, knows of the peaks in 1970, 1978 1984, 1996 and 2009 explicable by sets of texts very interconnected because part of academic discussions. The overall evolution allows you to point out that the average rate increased steadily over the period: the authors refer therefore proportionately more and more to the publications on the printout. 71For reminder, this indicator is calculated by doing for each text the ratio between the total of its references and the number of references that are part of the matrix. 116
5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? 1944
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0 5 10 15 20 25 Cross-Citations in % Publications in % Illustration 19: annual share in % of written quotations and cross-sell. 117
Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics 1944
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-5 0 5Illustration 20: Relation between the share of writings and share of cross-citations. A negative number indicates that the number of cross-citations is proportionately larger than that of publications. 1944 1946
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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Rate of intercitation MoyenneIllustration 21: Rate of intercitation and annual average %. 5.2 .3a density increasing overall with peaks The calculations for the density of the matrix provide the following results. In the first place, the overall density of the matrix of citations on the period 1945-2010 is 0.05 . This value seems to be able to be interpreted as consistent with the averages for this type of network of citations (see Havemann 2009). In the second place, the average density of the annual network of citations increases in a near-linear fashion over the period (0.1 to 0.3 ) then even that the gross number of publications increased: the authors cite proportionately more and more. In the third place, there are peaks of density, i.e. the years during which the texts are more strongly related to each other by their references (cf. illustration 21, p. 118). The three years the most dense are 2009 ( 0.22 ), 1992 ( 0.19 ) and 118 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? 1999 ( 0.16 ). The top decile72 includes 5 years of the last decade and 8 of the 10 years the most dense are located between 1989 and 2010. There is therefore a real densification has the work for twenty years. Illustration 22: Density of the matrix of citations. 5.2 .4centrality of texts and authors The analysis of centrality will be limited here to the first ten texts and authors the most cited of the database and of the corpus, presented in summary form. Database Corpus Publication Quotations Rank Publication Quotations Rank Rawls 1970 44 1
36 1 Rousseau 1762 38 2 Barber 1984 35 2 Burnheim 1985 36 3 Elster 1989 31 3 Aristotle - The policy 36 3 Manin 1996 29 4 Barber 1984 35 4 Hansen 1991 29 4 Elster 1989 31 5 Fishkin 1995 26 5 Montesquieu - Spirit of Laws 31 5 Broome 1984 25 6 Manin 1996 29 6 Dahl 1970 23 7 Hansen 1991 29 6 Fishkin 1991 22 8 Arrow 1951 29 6 Carson & Martin 1999 21 9
72That is, the ten years the more dense. 119
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Annual Density Average Density Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics
Aristotle 61 1
59 1 Dahl 59 2 Dahl 59 1 Fishkin 59 2 Elster 50 2 Elster 50 3 Broome 45 3 Rawls 46 4 Goodwin 39 4 Rousseau 46 4 Burnheim 36 5 Broome 45 5 Dienel 35 5 Goodwin 39 6 Barber 35 5 Burnheim 36 7 Stone 34 6 Barber 35 8 Hansen 34 7 Dienel 35 8
These results call six notes: 1.Five of the flagship publications of the database are without surprise classics of political philosophy, even though they do not deal exclusively from the draw. A classification which is confirmed in part at the level of the perpetrators with Aristotle in first place and Rawls and Rousseau in fourth. This result is consistent with the bibliometric regularities and the Matthew effect (cf. supra, p. 97) is found here as elsewhere: few authors accumulate a lot of quotes and many authors are little cites (see illustration 25, p. 120). Illustration 25: The Matthew effect: number of citations received by the authors of the matrix. 2.Six of the texts the most cited of the corpus are supporters and the book of Burnheim which is the most quoted is a text particularly radical in its proposals. A trend which 120 Fishkin Goodwin
Stone Ackerman
Pitkin Mueller, Tollison & Willet Taurek Hacking
Fienberg Coote and Lenaghan Scarce Customer Servicecheck Medical Resource Allocation Abramson
Kornhauser & Sager Glover
Brown Eckhoff
Frey & Stutzer Rhodes
Emery Pope
Bleicken Nilsen
Between Herzberg Boyce
Prat Warren
Mavrodes Ginsburgh & Michel Carson Sizif
Martin Grozinger Vicens Stasz & Stolk Pattanaik & Peleg Lichtenstein & Rabinowirt Gudian Cireze
Bohanon & Coelho Urfalino & Dalgalarrondo Schweinsberg Rice
Litvak-Poulin King
Williams Decocq & Roumier Berger 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 Quotations 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? Is reflected at the level of the authors with the presence of Burnheim, Goodwin and Barber all three particularly critical of liberal thought and supporters of the draw in politics. The group of authors is therefore turned resolutely toward a perspective of proposal and partisan of the draw. 3.The intuition that the books of Hansen (1991), Manin (1996) and Elster (1989) are central in the field is confirmed in these figures (cf. supra, p. 103 et seq. ), even when the three publications are tardives73. The first case is explained because the book is the current reference on ancient Athens in a perspective of political science and that democracy ancient interested all the authors of the corpus by its role of example. The presence of Elster is explained because it is the first publication quasi-monographic centered on the draw in policy as a decision tool. The book of Manin is the oldest monograph on the draw in treaty policy in a comparative way. 4.The presence of two publications of Fishkin is explained by the fact that most of the other authors cite in blocks the two publications. There is here an effect of separating cut which is found in the prominent place of Fishkin among the authors of the corpus. 5.Fishkin and Dienel are both among the authors most cited. This result is particularly interesting when one considers that it is the inventors of practical models of mini-publics74. It confirms the hypothesis that these models are adapted to test the relationship between the theory and the practice of drawing. We note also that the book of Dahl of 1970 containing the idea of mini-public is at the seventh place, which demonstrates the centrality of this proposal. 6.The set of results highlights the importance of two major topics around which revolve the discussions on the draw. Firstly the rational choice and its limits with Arrow, Elster, Goodwin and Rawls. Secondly the one on democracy with publications of - and authors such as - Aristotle, Barber, Burnheim, Dahl, Hansen, Manin or Montesquieu. 73In effect, more a publication is late, the more the probability to be central at the time of the census is low. 74The fact that Crosby, the inventor of Citizens Juries arrives in position 9 of the authors of the corpus, further strengthens this aspect, and this all the more if one takes into account the fact that there is little published. 121
Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics 5.2.5 An increase in exploratory texts and supporters The analysis of the details of the different types of publications and of the subjects provided an additional result, Namely that the share of publications descriptive tends to decrease while that of texts Exploratory and supporters increases (see 26, 122). 30% Of the texts supporters and 45% of the Exploratory texts have summers products in the past 10 years.
This structure of publications confirms the hypothesis that the interest for the draw in policy Is done more and more normative. The number of texts advocating for the introduction/reintroduction The draw takes importance not only in gross terms but also proportionately The number of publications. This remark is all the more true if one is interested The exploratory texts which have experienced a real boom. 5.3 The development of a network of actors Beyond these figures, the study of the dynamics of the network of the authors of the corpus gives of Elements allowing to test the assumption by the channels more qualitative.
A traditional tool of the bibliometrics is to identify the written texts in common by actors The network of citations with the purpose of detecting networks of people. In effect, write 122
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100% Part of exploratory texts Share of texts supporters Part of descriptive texts 5. The emergence of a new paradigm within the political philosophy? A text in collaboration presupposes a certain degree of confidence, and knowledge within a network. In the context of the texts of the corpus bibliometric we can identify 43 coredactions (16.2% of the texts) whose 19 7.1 %) are made with another author of the matrix. These figures are relatively low and may suggest that the authors do not work together that little between them. However, 25% of collaborations have taken place in the last decile of time (either 2003-2010) and more than half of the coredactions intra-network have been produced in the last 15 years. This trend could be interpreted as the beginning of a networking of the authors working on the drawing. The analysis of the appreciation nourishes this hypothesis: 27 texts contain acknowledgments concerning the authors of the matrix. 50% OF them are subsequent to 2002 which confirms the phenomenon of approximation of the actors who take on more and more support on each other. The acknowledgments made by Elster (1987, 107) at the beginning of one of its texts and in which are present seven of the authors of the matrix illustrate this point: " Among the participants in the seminar, I am especially indebted to Fredrik Engelstad and Aanund Hylland for their constructive and critical contributions. Thanks are also due Torstein Eckhoff, Karl O. Moene, and Kirsten Sandberg. I received many useful comments when presenting earlier versions of thesis readings at seminars at the University of California at Davis, the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University, and the University of Miami. Earlier drafts have also been read by Akhil Amar, Robert Bartlett, John Broome, G. A. Cohen, J. Gregory Dees, Gerald Dworkin, Ed Green, Stephen Holmes, Mark Kishlansky, William Kruskal, Isaac Levi, Stephen Stigler, Cass Sunstein. I am grateful to them all for their comments and suggestions. I aussi merci King K. Tsao for competent research assistance " on.
The academic activity is however not has publications and a live network of direct relations maintained between its members. For this reason, it was taken into account in this study scientometrics three additional elements. First, a quick review revealed that 5 of 6 scientific symposia (or panels within symposia) on the subject were held during the last 5 years. However this figure is to be taken with caution because of the limited visibility of symposia in comparison with that of the publications. It is therefore quite probable that some of them had escaped the census. The fact remains that the organization of panels devoted entirely to the draw in politics is a novelty. And this all the more if one is interested in their participants: the vast majority 123 Chapter 2: Prize Draw and political philosophy, a study scientometrics Stakeholders for the last three symposia in date are also present in the matrix of the authors. Another index which suggests has a growing integration is the structure of channels of publications. In effect for the past ten years an increasing number of texts supporters or exploratory summers have edited in the form of collections or of whole numbers of journals. An example is the series of articles published in the Social Science Review in 1989 or the one most prominent feature of the Sortition collection in Public Policy of the publisher Imprint Academic who is the real bearer of the texts on the draw, not only because it has published the majority of recent monographs, but also by his activity of re-publishing of books more anciens75. In Parallel emerges from a dynamic of discussion and direct communication in the form of an electronic mailing list coupled has a site of type blog. The first, created in 2003, has seen its number of members go from 9 in 2004 to 34 in 2010 14 of which are of the authors of the corpus76. The blog Equality by batch created in 2010 is animated by one of the authors the most central of the corpus and shows an important activity of direct discussions between the authors working on the tirage77. 75 In particular the classic On The Use of Lots of Gataker, the book of Callenbach & Phillips or that of Goodwin. 76A list created by Boyle, one of the authors also present in the corpus. 77Http://equalitybylot.wordpress.com/ (visit the 08.28.2011 ). The blog includes inputs and comments to authors of the central network as Burnheim, Stone or even Sutherland. 124
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