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Translation shifts are regular differences between translations and their source
texts. They can be analyzed top-down or bottom-up.
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Translations play a role in the development of cultural systems.
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The innovative or conservative position of translations within a cultural system
depends on the system’s relation with other systems, and may correlate with the
type of translation strategy used.
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When selecting texts to study, translations can be considered facts of target
culture only, as opposed to the source-culture context that is predominant in the
equivalence paradigm.
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Translators’ performances are regulated by collective “norms,” based on
informal consensus about what is to be expected from a translator.
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The descriptive approach was instrumental in organizing Translation Studies as
an academic discipline with an empirical basis.
5.1 What happened to equivalence
Equivalence went out of fashion. German-language
Skopostheorie
made it even more
unfashionable by arguing that since “functional consistency” (the closest thing they had
to equivalence) was no more than one of many possible requirements, translation
usually requires transformations of a rather more radical kind. For those theorists,
equivalence became quite a small thing, a special case. At almost the same time,
however, other theorists were dismantling equivalence in precisely the opposite way.
For this second very broad group, for what
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