themselves. In Holmes, those systems appear to hang together rather loosely; there is no
necessary homogeneity or determinist fatality. In other theorists, particularly those more
closely in touch with the legacy of Russian Formalism, cultural systems can impose
quite strong logics. Lotman and Uspenski (1971: 82), for example, talk about entire
cultures being “expression-oriented” or “content-oriented” (along with various more
complex classifications), never doubting that such orientations characterize the entire
cultural system. The stronger the logic by which the system is presumed to operate (i.e.
the more
systemic
it is seen to be), the more that system can be seen as determining the
nature of translations.
Here we return to the way
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