Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Mathematical Geography
The period under review is characterized by a rapid advance in mathematics and astronomy and in the application of these sciences in the solution of geographical problems such as the determination of the shape and size of the earth, accurate fixing of positions, surveying, cartography and navigation. One of the most important works on Mathematical Geography was composed on the model of Ptolemy’s Geography by Muhammad b. Musa alKhuwarizmi, one of the ablest astronomers of ai-Ma’mun. The book bears the title ”Kitab Surat al-Ard.” This book deals primarily with the longitudes and latitudes of places. The other name is that of Ja’far b. Muhammad b. Umar al-Balkhi surnamed Abu Ma’shar

886 A.D.). His astronomical treatise namely Kitab al-Mudkhal

Scientific and Literary Progress under the Abbasids
617
al-Kabir has the same scope as Ptolemy’s Almagest. Astronomical tables have also been attributed to him which unfortunately have not reached us.
In addition to the Greek material at his command Abu Ma’shar had at his disposal the mathematical doctrines prevalent in Persia. He knew well equally the Indian sciences and is believed to have visited India for learning the sciences of the Indians. Abu Ma’shar shows a knowledge of the monsoons of the Persian Gulf and the seas of India and he writes about the causes of the ocean tides and currents, a knowledge which was of great importance to the navigators of his day. Abu Ma’shar was profusely quoted by Roger Bacon in his Opus Majus.
Al-Kindi’s book on tides deals with the tidal phenomena and the shape and size of the earth. His works on Meteorology and Geology deal with Physical Geography and his works on Medicine supply information on the distribution of plants and animals. During this period the progress of Mathematical Geography continued on the same lines as in the previous one with the only difference that some of the scholars devoted whole heartedly to the verification of the results already achieved by their predecessors.
.-Astronomical tables were prepared by al-Mahani, which were based on a series of observations of lunar and solar eclipses and the planetary conjunctions. These tables were later used by Ibn Yunus. Mahani wrote also, commentaries on Euclid, Archimedes and Ishaq b. Hunain’s translation of Menelaos’s Sphaerica. The greatest astronomer of his age and one of the greatest in Islam is Abu Abdullah Muhammad b. Jabir b. Sinan, Battani, al-Sabi. Various astronomical writings are ascribed to him but his main work is the book of tables known as Kitab al-Zij al-Sabi’I. Battani made astronomical observations with remarkable range and accuracy from

877 to 881 A.D. His main researches may be summarized as follows:-

1. He calculated the latitudes and the longitude of important
towns.
2 He determined the Precession of Equinoxes with great
accuracy.

3. He fixed precisely the Obliquity of the Ecliptic i.e. the

inclination of the celestial equator with reference to the
Zodiacs, as 23 35’.

618 Political and Cultural History of Islam
4. He calculated the length of the solar year as 365 days 5
hours and 40 minutes.
Al-Battani’s geographical ideas were mainly derived from Ptolemy and al-Khwarizmi which he openly confesses in the introduction of his Zij.
Al-Ya’qubi’s work bears the title Kitab al-Buldan. The author speaks of his inclination for the study of strange lands and also of his interest in voyages. He says that it was in the course of his voyages that gathered geographical, topographical and historical information which he incorporated in his book. Beginning with a detailed study of the capitals of the Abbasid Caliphs viz. Baghdad and Samarra, he describes the major part of the Islamic countries as regards facts of physical and human geography discussing in detail the principal routes and the distances. Unfortunately the work has not survived in entirely. The extant portion contains an account of Baghdad and other important cities and countries.