Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Conquest /, *
With the conquest of Constantinople the Muslim world acknowledged-Muhammad as leader of the Holy War against
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Christianity. He now claimed superiority over all other Muslim rulers, including the neighbouring Mamluk sultans, and demanded the right to replace the latter as leaders of the pilgrimage to the Holy Cities. He also emphasized Ottoman relationships with the old Turkish empires of Central \sia, encouraging the writing down of traditions showing that his family descended directly from Oguz Han, thus countering the ambitions of his other principal rival in the East, Uzun Hassan, ruler of the White Sheep Turkomans of Iran. Who as we shall see, soon began to challenge his ruler in eastern Anatolia.
Muhammad also began to see himself as heir not merely to eastern Rome but to a worldwide empire. Byzantine and Italian scholars surrounding, him encouraged grandiose ideas of world dominion. After eMfninating possible contenders for the Byzantine throne, he moved to regain all the lands previously ruled by his Byzantine predecessors between the Euphrates and the Danube to further centralization he abandoned the vassal policies of the early Ottoman sultans and annexed most of the vassal territories, gaining the acquiescence of the Christian ruling families concerned by offering them the opportunity to rise high as Ottomans in the new empire. Only formal conversion, to Islam and acceptance of Ottoman ways were expected as the price for membership in the devsirme class. To the mass of the people he offered an end to the feudal oppression of their former Christian masters, security of life and property ties with the central administration through the timar system,-and opportunity to preserve their old traditions and ways as ; well as’their religion through the millet system.
In developing his policies of conquest, Muhammad basically followed the rules of Islamic law. The conquered people were left in possession of their lives and property under law. The conquered people were left in possession of their lives and property under state protection in return for the payment of the special head tax (J.zya) plus the regular taxes imposed on all producers of wealth whether Muslims or Christians. When he did encounter resistance, Muhammad used terror to achieve conquests, not only to overcome the particular enemy in question but also to break down resistance elsewhere and convince the mass of the people that they could attain peace and safety and avoid war by accepting the sultan’s invitation to join the empire and recognizing his rule.

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