Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Nature of Government
By and large, the provincial administration was patterned after the central government in Cordova and remained essentially the same under the party-kings, the Almoravids, and the Almohads. Under the Umayyads, the governor was appointed for an unspecified time. More than not be would assume independent jurisdiction, especially at the death of one ruler and the inauguration of a new one to regain control the ruler frequently resorted to force. For a while the capital of al-Andalus was Seville, but soon after the conquest it was moved to Cordova, where it remained until the fall of the Umayyad dynasty in 1031. For a long time Cordova was both the political and intellectual centre of al-Andalus. Al-Maqqari said that it had no equal on earth, not even the city of Bhaghdad; he quoted Ibn Sa’id al-Hijari as saying,... ’Its relation to al-Andalus is like that of the head to the body...” Cordova was famous for four things: the sciences, the Umayyad Mosque, al-Zahra palace, which even came to surpass it in splendour under the party-kings and afterward.
From 711 to 750, the government of al-Andalus was vested in the hands of a military commander appointed by the viceroys in Qayrawan who were themselves appointed by the caliph of Damascus. These governors controlled army and civil affairs and were directly responsible to the caliph. After the fa!! of the Umayyad dynasty in 750, al-Andalus was ruled by local governors in the midst of contention and political upheaval. With the advent of Abdur Rahman I in 756, Andalus became politically independent from the Muslim East. Nevertheless, the Andalusians looked to the East as a model. This was evident not only in the adoption of Arabic names for public offices but also in the structure of the official hierarchy.
The country was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty until 1031. Until

929, the Umayyad rulers assumed the title of emir inspite of the fact that their ancestors had been overthrown by the Abbasids. During this period, they were content to refer to themselves as the ”sons of caliphs” or ”emirs,” and not as caliphs, which would imply sovereignty over the whole Islamic community. This confirmed to the political reality of the day, since the Abbasids actually remained supreme over a large area of the Muslim world. With the decline of the Abbasids in the tenth century and the emergence of the Shi’ite. Fatimid dynasty in North Africa, the Umayyads of Spain under ’Abdur Rahman in felt did not justified in assuming the title of caliph-though in practice their power did not extend much beyond the Peninsula.

Like his counterpart in the East, the emir or caliph had absolute power over his subjects. He was the temporal and spiritual ruler: the imam or leader of prayer on Friday and commander in chief of the army on military expeditions. He delegated his power to whom he wished; he appointed and dismissed his functionaries at will. He coined money in his own name. From the tenth century onward he adopted sonorous titles (laqab). His inauguration was attended by great pomposity; an oath of allegiance was rendered to him first by the nobility and high functionaries and afterward by the masses. His name was expected to be mentioned throughout Andalus in the Friday sermon (khutbah). Nomination
Whether under the emirate or the caliphate, the Umayyad rulers nominated their successors during their own lifetime. Their criteria for the nominee were as inconsistent as those in the East. By and large, a son or relative was appointed to the throne after the incumbent’s death, but the heir apparent (wali-i-ahd) more often than not had to earn his throne on the battlefield against contending members one of the major factors tlwrt led to the decline and ultimate fall of the dynasty. Centralization
The Umayyad rulers constantly strove for strong central government, but the actual degree of centralization always depended on the ability and determination of the individual ruler. Abdur Rahman in had full control of Andalus. However, after his death power was arrogated almost solely by the chamberlain (hajib), who made the major decisions on behalf of the caliph. After the great civil

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war of 1009, chaos prevailed in Andalus, and a viable central government hardly existed. Revolt followed revolt, and a number of caliphs emerged but were ineffectual and always captives of military commanders and princes.2
During the breakdown of Umayyad power and the subsequent downfall of the dynasty in 1031, governors of provinces and commanders of the army forged for themselves a number of principalities. (These rulers, known as party-kings, held authority from about 1009 to 1091: they emulated the Umayyads of Cordova in every respect and arrogated to themselves the role of Caliphs. They adopted titles, nominated their successors and surrounded themselves with all sorts of bureaucrats: secretaries, wazirs, judges, military commanders, eunuchs, literati, and others). Soon after 1091, the Almoravids, governed Andalus from Marrakush. They appointed their relatives or commanders of the army to govern the various provinces of Andalus. Their administration remained essentially the same as it had been under the Umayyads, but began to lose its Arabic character with the advance of the reconquest.
Under both the Umayyads and subsequent dynasties, the ruler relied on many individuals for the administration of his domain. Important among them were the following officials: Hajib
The Hajib (chamberlain) was the most influential figure at the court. He was the intermediary between the ruler, on the one hand, and the rest of the courtiers and people, on the other. His functions were similar to those of the wazir in the East. He executed the ruler’s orders and often made decisions and formulated policies for him. Furthermore, he was in charge of the central administration, public security, and military and provincial affairs, and he presided over the council of functionaries. His power was enormous since he oversaw all branches of administration: foreign relations, justice, finance, provision and equipment of troops, and so on. Hakarn II delegated most of his t£)\vcis to his hajib. ai-Mushafi. This powerful chamberlain was succeeded by Ibn Amir who ruled Andalus under the title of hajib, and was assisted by a number of wazirs. Wazir
The wazir was a secondary figure accountable to the chamberlain. There were a number of wazirs, each of whom had
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under his control one branch of administration: finance, foreign relations, justice, etc. They formed a council over which the emir and the hajib presided. The tittle of wazir soon became honorary and was assumed by military commanders and other individuals. However, the office of the wazirate developed in time and seems to have overshadowed the post of hajib. It took on a dual character and was conferred upon people who were both good administrators and erudite, hence their appealation of ”Holder of the two wazirates” (dhu-i-wizaratayn).’
Katib
The katib (the secretary) was an important official- There were several secretaries, each incharge of a specific function. The two most important were the secretary of correspondence (katib alrasa’il), who excelled in the epistolary art and drafated and wrote official documents, and the secretary of finance (katib al-dhiman), who took charge of budgetary mattes and accounting, with particular
concen for the affairs of Christians and Jews so long as this
(latter) office subsisted in Andalus and in the Maghrib no Christian or Jew ever needed the protection and assistance of the gieat and powerful. Sahib al-Barid
Sahib al-Barid (the postmaster) held a very important, sensitive post concerned not only with the distribution of mail but also with gathering intelligence about the state of affairs in the provinces. Khazin al-Mal
Khazin al-Mal (the treasure) took care of the caliph’s coffers and supervised tax revenue from the provinces. Qazi
The Qazi (the judge ) was an appointee of the ruler. He was known at first as Qazi al-jund (the judge of a military contingent) and later as Qazi al-Jamah (the judge of the people) or Qazi al-Quzat (the chief judge); in a small town, he was known as hakim. Judges belonged to the Malikite school of law. They were extremely influential and highly respected owing to the great independence and power which the office gave its holders; it is even maintained that if a Qazi summoned the ruler tl?e latter would immediately obey the
S M Imamuddm, Cultural Histor, of Muslim Spam. P 54

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Political and Cultural History of Islam

summons. In theory the chief Qazi had the power to appoint judges to the various provinces, but it is unlikely that he actually exercised such power. They had jurisdiction over religious foundations (waqf,pl. awqaf) and the treasury of Muslims (Bayt-ul-Mal alMuslim in), which differed from the state treasury. In addition, a Qazi conducted the Friday prayer in the main mosque. He was often assisted by an advisory council (majlis al-shura) of people familiar with the law: the council deliberated legal questions. The Qazi deal with civil cases pertaining to marriage, divorce, wills, inheritance, and so on. whereas police inspectors dealt with criminal cases. He was supposed to be a man of great learning, high moral standards, and integrity.