Table 5 227 Crematoria and cemeteries: sub-categories with primary pathways of releases of mercury and recommended inventory approach
Chapter
|
Sub-category
|
Air
|
Water
|
Land
|
Product
|
Waste/
residue
|
Main inventory approach
|
5.9.1
|
Crematoria
|
X
|
|
|
|
x
|
OW
|
5.10.2
|
Cemeteries
|
|
|
X
|
|
|
OW
|
Notes: PS = Point source by point source approach; OW = National/overview approach;
X - Release pathway expected to be predominant for the sub-category;
x - Additional release pathways to be considered, depending on specific source and national situation.
5.9.1Crematoria 5.9.1.1Sub-category description -
Cremation is a common practice in many societies to incinerate human corpses. Mercury is released during such cremation. Most of the mercury released is due to the presence of dental amalgam fillings that contain mercury. However, smaller amounts of mercury present in body tissues, such as in blood and hair are also released during cremation.
-
The essential components for cremation are the charging of the coffin (and the corpse), the main combustion chamber and, where applicable, the afterburning chamber. In some cases, a dust separator or more sophisticated gas treatment is present. Finally, gases leave through the stack. Most furnaces are fired using oil or natural gas; some run on electricity. Crematoria are usually located within cities and close to residential areas and normally, stacks are relatively low (UNEP, 2003).
-
A large number of cremations occur throughout the world each year. For example, in 1995 in the USA, approximately 488,224 cremations were performed at the 1,155 crematories.
5.9.1.2Main factors determining mercury releases and mercury outputs
Table 5 228 Main releases and receiving media from crematoria
Phase of life cycle
|
Air
|
Water
|
Land
|
Products
|
General waste
|
Sector specific treatment/
disposal
|
Crematoria
|
X
|
|
|
|
|
x
|
Notes: X - Release pathway expected to be predominant for the sub-category;
x - Additional release pathways to be considered, depending on specific source and national situation.
-
Air is reported as the primary “receiving medium” of the mercury released by cremation (NJ MTF, 2002). Since cremations involve high temperatures and since most crematories have limited emission controls that would reduce mercury releases, the vast majority of the mercury in a corpse that is cremated is expected to be released to the air through the stack. In some crematoria, however, that apply efficient emission controls, a significant part of the mercury may end up in fly ash and other residues. Besides, a small percent of mercury may collect on the brick material of the crematoria, and a very small percent may be found in the ash (based on study by Dr. T. Thomassen, as cited by Reindl, 2003).
5.9.1.3Discussion of mercury inputs
Table 5 229 Overview of activity rate data and mercury input factor types needed to estimate releases from crematoria
Activity rate data needed
|
Mercury input factor
|
Number of corpses cremated
|
Average amount of mercury contained in each corpse
|
-
The amount of mercury in each corpse varies considerably and largely depends on the number of dental amalgam fillings, and to a lesser extent on the size of the fillings. In Denmark, the typical filling (as found in the mouth) contains from about 0.2 - 0.6 g of mercury; on average about 0.4g mercury/filling. The average mercury content of fillings of corpses in Denmark in 2001 was estimated at 4.1 g mercury per corpse (Skårup et al., 2003). The total mercury content of 41,000 cremated corpses in 2001 was 170 kg and it is in the report estimated that out of this amount nearly 100% was released to the atmosphere, as the crematoria are not equipped with emission controls.
-
Based on information in NJ MTF (2002), each corpse in New Jersey, USA, contains between 0.8 and 5.6 grams of mercury, with a mean of 2.9 g per corpse due to the presence of fillings. The amount of additional mercury in each corpse due to the presence of mercury in other body tissues (blood, hair, etc.), which is largely due to fish consumption and other exposures, has been estimated to be in range of 1 x 10-5 - 0.1 g mercury (Reindl, 2003).
-
In the Netherlands, research indicates that due to differences in the number of fillings in people of different age groups, the average amount of fillings will increase from 3.2 to 5.1 during the period 1995-2020 (OSPAR, 2002). This means that the emissions from cremations in the Netherlands will double between 2002 and 2020, unless abatement measures are introduced.
-
In a review of mercury emitted from cremations in the United Kingdom, it is estimated that amalgam fillings on average contain 0.6 g mercury, but alternative estimates mentioned in the review range from 0.36 - 1 g per filling (Passant, 2004). The author estimates that the mercury emission per cremation has steadily increased from 0.49 g/cremation in 1968 to 1.92 g/cremation in 2003, due to an increased number of amalgam fillings and a decreased number of toothless people (Passant, 2004). In 1969, 73% of deceased people were toothless compared to only 44% in 2003. The tendency of increased amounts of mercury per cremation is expected to continue and it is estimated that the total emissions from crematoria in the United Kingdom (unless better emission controls are implemented) will increase from 0.78 metric tons in 1999 to 1.3 metric tons in 2020 (DEFRA, 2004).
5.9.1.4Examples of mercury in releases and wastes/residues -
The total 1995 mercury emissions from all cremations in the USA (total of about 488,224 cremations) were estimated to be 0.73 metric tons (US EPA, 1997a). However, these estimates were based on one set of data (reported in US EPA, 1997a) from tests conducted for a propane-fired incinerator at a crematorium in California (by the California Air Resources Board). Results of this testing of mercury emissions from crematoria without emission controls ranged from 0.626 - 2.26 g mercury/corpse cremated; the average mercury emission factor was 1.5 g/corpse cremated (US EPA, 1997a).
-
According to an OSPAR survey of mercury emissions from crematoria in European countries, the reported emission per cremation ranged from 0.1 g (in Belgium) to 2.3 g per cremation (in France), see Table 5 -230. Note the somewhat different figures for Denmark and the United Kingdom quoted in the previous section.
Table 5 230 Emission of mercury from crematoria in some European countries (based on OSPAR, 2002)
Country
|
Estimated Hg
emission per year (kilos)
|
Number of
crematoria
|
Number of
cremations
|
Average
emission per cremation (g)
|
Norway
|
70
|
42
|
|
|
Sweden
|
122
|
71
|
65,002
|
1.9
|
Germany
|
42-168
|
130
|
333,800
|
0.1 - 0.5
|
Netherlands
|
80
|
|
|
|
Belgium
|
3.7
|
|
35,793
|
0.1
|
Iceland
|
|
1
|
|
|
Ireland
|
|
2
|
|
|
Switzerland
|
45
|
26
|
40,000
|
1.1
|
France
|
200
|
80
|
87,000
|
2.3
|
Portugal
|
|
4
|
2,311
|
|
-
In a review presented by Hylander and Meili (2005), mercury emissions to the air from cremation are estimated to 0.28 metric tons per year in Sweden (Munthe et al., 2001) or 0.03 g per capita per year from a population of 8.5 million with 40–100 metric tons of mercury accumulated in dental fillings and a cremation rate around 65% (Munthe et al., 2001; Rein and Hylander, 2000; SCB, 2002; all as cited by Hylander and Meili, 2005).
5.9.1.5Input factors and output distribution factors -
Based on the information compiled above on inputs and outputs and major factors determining releases, the following preliminary default input and distribution factors are suggested for use in cases where source specific data are not available. It is emphasized that the default factors suggested in this Toolkit are based on a limited data base, and as such, they should be considered subject to revisions as the data base grows.
-
The primary purpose of using these default factors is to get a first impression of whether the sub-category is a significant mercury release source in the country. Usually release estimates would have to be refined further (after calculation with default factors) before any far reaching action is taken based on the release estimates.
a) Default mercury input factors -
National data on grams of amalgam fillings per corpse cremated annually will lead to the best estimates of releases.
If no information is available on the number of amalgam fillings prepared annually, a first estimate can be formed by using the default input factors selected in Table 5 -231 below (based on the data sets presented in this section). Because concentrations vary so much, it is recommended to calculate and report intervals for the mercury inputs to this source category. The low end default factors has been set to indicate a low end estimate for the mercury input to the source category (but not the absolute minimum), and the high end factor will result in a high end estimate (but not the absolute maximum).
Table 5 231 Preliminary default input factors for mercury inputs to cremation
|
Default input factors;
g mercury per corpse;
(low end - high end)
|
Cremation
|
1 - 4
|
b) Default mercury output distribution factors
Table 5 232 Preliminary default mercury output distribution factors for cremation
Phase in life-cycle
|
Default output distribution factors, share of Hg input
|
Air
|
Water
|
Land
|
Products
|
General waste
|
Sector specific treatment/
disposal
|
Cremation
|
1
|
|
|
|
|
|
c) Links to other mercury sources estimation -
The mercury releases from cremation are closely linked to the usage of dental amalgam, and cremation is one of the output pathways from amalgam use, see section 5.6.1.
-
The most important source specific data would in this case be some (or all) of the following:
-
Data on average amount of mercury per corpse;
-
Data on the average number of mercury amalgam fillings in the human subpopulation that is expected to be cremated at the source;
-
Average amount of mercury per filling;
-
Number of human bodies cremated; and
-
Measured data on emission reduction equipment applied on the source (or similar sources with very similar equipment and operating conditions).
-
See also advice on data gathering in section 4.4.5.
5.9.2Cemeteries 5.9.2.1Sub-category description -
A cemetery is an area where human corpses are buried.
-
Mercury in the human body, primarily from dental amalgam fillings, will be released to the soil at the cemetery.
5.9.2.2Main factors determining mercury releases and mercury outputs
Table 5 233 Main releases and receiving media from cemeteries
Phase of life cycle
|
Air
|
Water
|
Land
|
General waste
|
Sector specific treatment/
disposal
|
Burial
|
|
|
X
|
|
|
Notes: X - Release pathway expected to be predominant for the sub-category;
x - Additional release pathways to be considered, depending on specific source and national situation.
5.9.2.3Discussion of mercury inputs
Table 5 234 Overview of activity rate data and mercury input factor types needed to estimate releases from cemeteries
Activity rate data needed
|
Mercury input factor
|
Number of corpses buried
|
Average amount of mercury
contained in each corpse
|
-
For data on mercury amounts per corpse, see section 5.10.1.3 above on cremation.
5.9.2.4Input factors and output distribution factors -
Based on the information compiled above on inputs and outputs and major factors determining releases, the following preliminary default input and distribution factors are suggested for use in cases where source specific data are not available. It is emphasized that the default factors suggested in this Toolkit are based on a limited data base, and as such, they should be considered subject to revisions as the data base grows.
-
The primary purpose of using these default factors is to get a first impression of whether the sub-category is a significant mercury release source in the country. Usually release estimates would have to be refined further (after calculation with default factors) before any far reaching action is taken based on the release estimates.
a) Default mercury input factors -
National data on grams of mercury (in amalgam fillings) per corpse buried will lead to the best estimates of releases.
If no information is available on the number of amalgam fillings prepared annually, a first estimate can be formed by using the default input factors selected in Table 5 -235 below (based on the data sets presented in the section on cremation). Because concentrations vary so much, it is recommended to calculate and report intervals for the mercury inputs to this source category. The low end default factors has been set to indicate a low end estimate for the mercury input to the source category (but not the absolute minimum), and the high end factor will result in a high end estimate (but not the absolute maximum).
Table 5 235 Preliminary default input factors for mercury inputs to cemeteries
|
Default input factors;
g mercury per corpse;
(low end - high end)
|
Burial
|
1 – 4
| b) Default mercury output distribution factors
Table 5 236 Preliminary default mercury output distribution factors for cemeteries
Phase in life-cycle
|
Default output distribution factors, share of Hg input
|
Air
|
Water
|
Land
|
Products
|
General waste
|
Sector specific treatment/
disposal
|
Burial
|
|
|
1
|
|
|
|
c) Links to other mercury sources estimation -
The mercury releases from cremation are closely linked to the usage of dental amalgam, and cremation is one of the output pathways from amalgam use. See section 5.6.1.
5.9.2.5Source specific main data -
The most important source specific data would in this case be some (or all) of the following:
-
Data on average amount of mercury per corpse;
-
Data on the average number of mercury amalgam fillings in the human subpopulation that are expected to be cremated at the source;
-
Average amount of mercury per filling; and
-
Number of human bodies buried.
-
See also advice on data gathering in section 4.4.5.
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