The Arabic Language
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qāma bi-
, 233 qāmūs , 123 Qaradawi, Yusuf al-, 257 Qarawiyine, 262 Qaryat al-Faʾw, 34 Qašqa Darya, 284 qāṣṣ , pl. quṣṣāṣ , 74 Qaṭabānian, 11, 26 qawl , 112 qawmiyya , 250 Qayrawān, 129f. Qays, 44 confederation of, 43, 140 qǝltu see Arabic language, qǝltu qeryānā , 62 Qipčaq Turkic, 82 qirāʾāt , 62 qiyās , 108, 229, 235; see also analogy quadriradical noun, 122 Qudāma ibn Jaʿfar, 79 Qurʾān, 42f., 60, 62 Berber translation of, 273 codification of, 61f. collection of, 62f. commentaries, 67 copyists of, 47 exegesis of, 66, 68, 78 language of, 44f., 52f., 55, 62, 65f., 76, 147 loanwords in, 69 manuscripts of, 54, 63f. miracle of, 61 orthography of, 45, 47, 49, 54f. Persian translations of, 81 recitation of, 52, 62, 80, 109, 176, 251 404 The Arabic Language rhyming conventions of, 54 text of, 45f., 61, 108 translation of, 80, 314 Qurʾān schools, 314, 329 in East Africa, 319 in Indonesia, 329 Qurayš, 28, 42, 44f., 173, 285 quṣṣāṣ see qāṣṣ Qutayba ibn Muslim, 285 Rabat, 184 Rabeh, 305 Rabīʿa, 44 radicals, 91, 114f. radio programmes, 248 speech, in Morocco, 269 texts, 167 radio Arabic see Arabic, radio rafʿ , 107, 111f.; see also nominative rajaz poetry, 71, 73 rajaz poetry, lexicon of, 96 Rāšidūn , 75 Ravid, D., 89 rāwī , 53, 61 reanalysis, 307 of Arabic loanwords in Fulfulde, 321 of Arabic loanwords in Swahili, 320 Rebhan, H., 222 recitation see Qurʾān, recitation Reckendorff, H., 100 Reconquista , 316 rection, 107 reduced varieties, 300, 302 reduplicated verbs, 135 reduplication, 96 reflexive-intransitive verbs, 96 reform in 19th-century Egypt, 225 Islamic, 225 regionalism, 251 register allegro, 56 informal, 234, 237 mixed, 270 poetic, 46 relative pronoun, 135, 159, 161, 245f. religion, as a variable, 254 restructuring, 146f. resultative aspect, 209 resumptive pronoun, 271 Retsö, J., x, 42f. revival Islamic, 251 of Arabic studies, 225 Reza Shah, 322 rhymed prose see sajʿ rhyming order, 123 ridda wars, 126 rider-warriors, 27 Rif, 272 riwiš , 252, 256 Rizk, S., 256 Roman empire, fall of, 1 Romance, 315f. languages, 101, 169 Romanian Arabic pidgin, 311 root, 91, 109, 122 abstraction, 278 determinative, 91 structure, 89 root-and-pattern morphology, 92f. root-based approach, 89 Rosenbaum, G., x Rosenberger, B., 130 Rosenthall, S., 89 Ruʾba ibn al-ʿAjjāj, 73 rural speech, 255 Russian, 230 Ryding, K., 239 Saadya Gaon, 161 Sabaean, 11, 20, 26 script, 34 sacred language, 251 Saʿd ad-Dīn Wahba 171 Sadat, President Anwar, 251 šadda , 64 Saddam Hussein, 182 saddle, camel, 27 saddle-bow, invention of, 27 sādhu-bhāṣā , 328 šadīd , 64 Ṣafa, 30 Ṣafadī aṣ-, 82 Ṣafaitic inscriptions, 30, 40 Safavids, 82 Šafawiyya , 120 Sahara, 318 saḫīf , 79 Saʿīd ʿAql, 168 Saint Catherine, monastery of, 163 šāʿir , pl. šuʿarāʾ , 53 sajʿ , 76 šajriyya , 120 Ṣāliḥ, 29 Salmanassar III, 26 Samanids, 82, 313 Index 405 Samarqand, 285 Šammar, 186, 189 Sanskrit, 327f. Saracens, 2 Sargon II, 27, 29 Sasanian empire, 128, 313, 321 Saudi Arabia, Facebook in, 238 savannah belt, 205, 318 sawāḥil , 319 Sawaie, M., 291 Sāwīrus ibn al-Muqaffaʿ see Severus of Eshmunein Schlözer, A. L., 5 Schoeler, G., 75 school reform, in Tunisia, 261 schools Algerian, 263 bilingual, 260f. French, 262 traditional, 262 Tunisian, 261 see also Qurʾān schools Schreiber, G., 197 Schriftsprache , 46f., 52 Schwyzertüütsch, 242, 252 science, Arabic, 3 scribal error, 51 scribes, 58, 62, 64f., 74, 76, 157 Jewish, 161 Maghrebi, 315 script Arabic, 62 Aramaic, 54 cuneiform, 6 cursive, 39 Devanagari, 327 epigraphic, 64 Hebrew, 160f. Jawi, 329 Kūfic, 64 Liḥyanitic, 34 Nabataean, 36, 39, 54, 63f. North Arabian, 43 Pahlavi, 314 Phoenician, 26 Sabaean, 34 South Arabian, 26, 28–30, 34 Syriac, 37–9, 63 Tifinagh see Tifinagh second-language acquisition, 133, 141f., 146 secret language, in Madagascar, 321 secularisation, of the Turkish republic, 324 secularism, in Turkey, 225 sedentarisation, 21 sedentary dialects, 72, 147, 150, 175 sedentary koine, 149 Seeger, U., 285 segmentation, morphological, 110, 116f. Seljuks, 82, 281, 324 semantic bleaching, 137 semantic extension, 69, 228, 230, 232 semantic relationship, of roots, 123 semantics, 109 semi-consonants see glides Semitic Central, 15, 20f. Early New, 12 East, 11, 19 homeland, 13 languages, 4–7, 10–25, 140 languages, classification of, 11–18 Late New, 12 North-east, 11 North-west, 12, 18–20, 22 Old, 12 South, 12, 14, 18, 20–2, 26, 93, 143 South-west, 12 West, 12 sentence definition of, 112 nominal see nominal sentence structure, 136 verbal see verbal sentence sermons, 76 by Amr Khaled, 252 in Kabylian, 273 language of, 251 Sesame Street , 236f. Severus of Eshmunein, 128 Shah ʾIsmāʿīl, 82 Sharkawi, M., xi Sharon, M., 36 Sheikh Kishk, 251 Shem, 5, 17 Shiʿa, 82 Shiʿites, in Bahrain, 176; see also Baḥārna Shilluk, 306 Shingazija, 320 Shuwa Arabs, 288 shwa , xvii Sībawayhi, xi, 49f., 62f., 66, 70, 72f., 81, 107, 110f., 117, 120f., 124, 174 Sicilian, 278 Sicily, Arab, 1 Sidon, 10 Šidyāq, Fāris aš-, 226, 231 Ṣiffīn, Treaty of, 75 Sijpesteijn, P., 65, 157 406 The Arabic Language Silvestre de Sacy, A. I., 5 simplification of grammar see grammar, simplification of of language, 235f. simplified varieties, 147, 149 Sinai Bedouin, 147 Sindhi, in Arabic script, 331 Singer, H.-R., xviii singular, 19 Sinhalese, 304 sīra , 78, 83 Siwa Berber, 130, 209 slave trade, 306 Smart, J., 302 soap operas, Egyptian, 183, 252 social media, 169 Arabic in the, 238 influence of the, 237 social network, 254 sociolinguistics, 8 Soliman, A., 251 Somalia, 319 Soqoṭri, 16, 26, 127 sorabe , 321 sound plural see plural, sound Sous, 272 South Arabia, 22 South Arabian, 12, 16, 19f., 30f., 127 script, 26, 28–30, 34 substratal influence, 143, 196 South Palestinian texts, 164 South Semitic, 14, 18, 20–2, 26, 93, 143 South Sudan, 306f. South-west Semitic, 21 Spain, Islamic, 1f., 44; see also ʾAndalus, al- Spain, migrants in, 297 Spanish, 24, 270, 299, 316f. specifier, 99 speech corruption of, 56f. errors, 89 setting, 246 situation, 246 topic, 246 split, phonemic, 143 Sprachinsel see enclaves, linguistic Sri Lanka, domestics from, 303 Staffellandschaft , 178 standard language, 241, 245, 249f., 253f., 315 influence of, 146–50 marker of, 248f. standardisation, 63–6, 149 star names, 317 Starcky, J., 39 stative aspect, 94 in Akkadian, 14 verb, 95 stereotypes, 302 stigmatisation, 147, 207 story-telling, 74, 78, 158 street names, French, 264 stress, 87f., 122, 134 stress assignment, in Egyptian Arabic, 207f. stress shift, 88, 194 in Maghrebi Arabic, 213 stress, expiratory, 48, 134 stress, word-final, 182 strong verbs, 135 Stroumsa, R., 65 šuʿarāʾ see šāʿir subject, 97–9, 114, 235 subject marking, on participle, 286 sub-Saharan trade, 301 substratal influence, 139, 141–4 Aramaic, 142f. Berber in Arabic, 272 Coptic, 129, 141–4 Persian in Khorasan Arabic, 285 South Arabian in Yemenite Arabic, 143, 196 substrate Arabic in Nabataean, 31 pre-Hilali, 180 Sudan, 205, 317 pacification of, 306 suffix conjugation, 90, 93f.; see also perfect verb suffixes, 90 pronominal, 56 verbal, 14, 20 Sulaym, Banū, 129, 180, 186, 189 Suleiman, S., 255 Suleiman, Y., 237 Sumatra, 329 Sumerian, 27 Sunnites, in Bahrain, 176 superlative, 237 sūqiyya , 242 Suquṭra, 127 Šuʿūbiyya , 81, 128 Suyūṭī as-, 69 Swahili, 217, 301, 307, 310, 319–21 as national language, 320 in Arabic script, 314 in Zanzibar, 319 literary tradition in, 314, 319 Switzerland, diglossia in, 242 Index 407 syllable structure, 89 heavy, 88 light, 88 open, 134 superheavy, 88 unstressed, 142 synonyms, 85 syntax, 97–103 synthetic language, 55 Syria nationalism in, 224 under French mandate, 265 Syriac, 11, 22, 81, 127 script, 37–9, 63 Neo-, 127 translations, 3 Syrian Academy see Academy of Damascus Syrian desert, 27 Syrian Protestant College, 265 system morpheme see morpheme, system tāʾ marbūṭa , xv, 54, 102, 131, 165 Ṭabarī aṭ-, 78 tabsīṭ al-luġa , 235 tabsīṭ an-naḥw , 235 Tabūk, 62 Tachelhit, 271 taʿdiya , 119; see also transitivity Tadmur see Palmyra tafḫīm , 121 tafsīr , 78 tagged corpus, 106 Tajik, 284f. adstratal influence in Uzbekistan Arabic, 286 tajwīd , 109 takmila , 235 Talmon, R., 63, 66, 176 Talmud, 162 Babylonian, 11 taltala , 49, 134, 156, 187 Tamazight see Berber Tamil, 18, 328 in Arabic script, 328 Tamilnadu, 328 Tamīm, 44f. tamma , 233 Ṯamūd, 29, 31, 43 Tamudi, 27, 29 Ṯamūdic, 29 Tanūḫ, Banū, 127 tanwīn see nunation Tanzania, 319 Taqbilit see Kabylian taqdīr , 109 taqlīd , 225 taʿrīb , 229, 236, 266; see also Arabicisation Tarifit, 271 Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, 272 taṣrīf , 107, 109, 115; see also morphology ṭawāf , 80 Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm, 166 tax register, 65 taxation, 65, 130 taysīr , 237 taysīr an-naḥw , 235 Ṭayyiʾ, 44 teachers, Egyptian, 252 teaching of Algerian Arabic, 263 of home language, 292 of Standard Arabic, 235 television preachers, 251 talkshows, 255 template, morphological, 13, 89 temporal adjuncts, 303 adverbs, 145 tense, 94, 117, 303 anterior, 282 future, 94, 137, 146, 194, 209, 282 in negation, 101 past, 94 present, 209 terminology astronomical, 317 botanical, 70 computer, 232 creation of, 227 football, 232 French in Arabic, 234 linguistic, 232f. mathematical, 316 medical, 70, 317 philosophical, 70 religious, 69 scientific, 231 social media, 233 terrace landscape, 178 text repositories, 19 texts, transmission of, 60 theophoric names, 31, 53 Thomason, S., 301 Tifinagh, 273 in Niger, 274 Tiglatpilesar III, 26 408 The Arabic Language Tigre, 11 Tigriña, 11 Timur Lenk, 285 Tizi-Ouzou, 273 Toledo, conquest of, 1, 315, 317 tones in Arabic loanwords in Hausa, 319 in Bongor Arabic, 305 in Nubi, 308f. tongue retraction, 86 topic, 111, 113, 246 topicalisation, 113 Torah, language of, 10 Tosco, M., 305 trade, 28 Central Asian, 301, 326 contacts, in the Egyptian Delta, 182 in East Africa, 319 in the Indian Ocean, 301 in the Qurʾān, 61 incense, 26f., 29 jargon, 301, 305f. routes, in Africa, 318 slave, 306 sub-Saharan, 301 with South Asia, 329 traders Ḥaḍramawtī, 329f. South Arabian, 328 trading networks, 318 Trajan, 28 transcription, xiv– xviii of Arabic in Latin characters, 169, 238 phonetic, xvii–xviii phonological, xvii–xviii transfer grammar, 239 Transformational grammar, 105 transitional zone, 177, 185, 194, 208, 212 transitive, 111 transitiviser, 309 transitivity, 105, 119 translation from Arabic into Latin, 2, 317 from Arabic into Turkish, 224 from English into Arabic, 233f. from French into Arabic, 221, 233 from Greek into Arabic, 70, 75, 156, 163, 228 from Greek into Syriac, 77 from Pahlavi into Arabic, 76 from Persian into Arabic, 76 from Syriac into Arabic, 77 of grammatical terms, 107f. of political ideas, 221–4 of the Bible in Arabic, 164 of the Bible in Coptic, 128 of the Pentateuch in Arabic, 161 of the Qurʾān in Berber, 273 translators, 1 transliteration, xiv–xviii transmission of poetry, 61 of texts, 60 oral, 61 Transoxania, 285 treaties, 61f., 75 Trengganu, 329 tribal areas, 186 trilingualism Arabic–Turkish–Kurdish, 275, 281f. Arabic–Uzbek–Tajik, 275, 284f. triptosis, 115f. triradicalism, 13, 91, 124 triradicals, 115 Tschacher, T., 328 Tsereteli, G., 284 Tuareg, 274 Tuareg, in Arabic script, 315 Tunisia, 129, 189, 225 Berber in, 130 French occupation of, 260 linguistic situation in, 260–2 Ṭūr ʿAbdīn, 127 Turkic, 82 Chagatay, 316 grammars of, 125 in Egypt, 82 Oġuz, 82 Qipčaq, 82 Turkish, 6, 223, 283f., 325f. as a perfect language, 324 as administrative language, 82, 223 in Arabic script, 314 study of, 5 transcription of, xvii Turkmenistan, 285 Turks, Seljuk see Seljuks Turku, 305 Ṭurōyo, 127 Twitter, 238 typological classification, 11 Tyre, 10 Uganda, 307f., 319 Ugaritic, 10, 12, 22f. ʿUlā, al-, 29 Ullendorff, E., 15 Ullmann, M., 71, 319 Index 409 ʿUmar ibn ʾAbī Rabīʿa, 73 ʿUmar, Caliph, 80 ʾUmayyads, 73, 75–8 ʾUmm al-Jimāl, inscription of, 35–7 ʾumma , 224, 226 ʾummī , 61 undeclinability, 108 underlying level, 109, 111 Université Saint Joseph, 265 upgrading, of speech, 248 Uralo-Altaic languages, 18 urban centres, 185 dialects, 149f. speech, 173, 255 variants, 180 variety, 254 urbanisation, 180, 183, 253, 255f. Urdu, 313f., 326–8 Urdu Pidgin Arabic, 302 Urdu, in Arabic script, 314, 327f. ʾUsāma ibn Munqiḏ, 80, 159f., 166 ʿUṯmān, Caliph, 62 uvularisation, 86 Uyghur, in Arabic script, 331 Uzbek, 284f. adstratal influence in Uzbekistan Arabic, 287 Uzbekistan, 285 valency, 95f., 119 Valletta, 297 Vansleb, J. M., 129 variable, 177 age as, 256 class as, 253f. education as, 253f. intrapersonal 253–6 gender as, 255 religion as, 254 variables, interdependence of, 254 variant readings, 62 variation gender-related, 255, 256 in Modern Standard Arabic, 233 linguistic, 253–6 variety discrete, 185, 243 high , 242 intermediary, 243 low , 242 sociolectal, 253 Vassalli, M., 277 vehicular language, 305 velarisation, xiv, 23, 86 verb, 112, 117–19 auxiliary, 145 declension of, 111 definition of, 110 delocutive, 231 diminutive, 216 dummy see dummy verb hollow, 49, 118 imperfect see imperfect verb inchoative, 95, 97 middle, 96 non-stative, 306, 309 of motion, 95, 209 of perception, 209 perfect see perfect verb reduplicated, 135 reflexive-intransitive, 96 stative, 306, 209 strong, 135 weak, 118f., 135, 203 weak in Maltese, 278 verbal measure II, 92, 96, 105, 214 III, 96, 214 IV, 96, 105, 135 V, 96, 169, 214 VII, 92, 214 VIII, 96, 214 X, 96, 215 verbal measures, 95f., 119, 214 verbal mood, 54 verbal noun see maṣdar verbal sentence, 51f., 96f., 112–14, 235 verbal suffixes, 21 Versteegh, K., 299 Vinnikov, I., 284, 287 Violet, B., 156 Vita of St Menas, 165 Vita of St Pachomius, 164 vocabulary split, 180 vocabulary, essential, 236 vocal cords, 120 Vocke, S., 283 voiced, 120, 173 voiceless, 120, 174 Voigt, R., 21 volitional aspect, 94, 146 Volkssprache , 46f., 52 Vollers, K., 46f., 52 vowel allophones, 121 contraction, 49 dots, 63 410 The Arabic Language epenthetic, 47, 188, 199f., 203, 209 harmony, 48, 325 reduction, 87 signs, 64; Tiberian, xvii, 161 vowels, 121 /a/, 87, 121 /ā/ spelled with wāw , 33, 49 /e/, 315 /e/, in West Arabic, 49 backing of /a/, 48 defective notation of long, 63 elision of short, 142 final long, 134 final short, 134 fronting of /a/, 48 long, 198 notation of long, 32f., 121 notation of short, 38, 63f. reduction of short, 202 shortening of long, 209 shwa , xvii writing of, 164, 315 Vrolijk, A., 159 Vycichl, W., 129 wa -, 233 Waldner, W., 283 Walters, K., 256 waqaʿa , 234 Wāqidī al-, 75 Warš, 315 Warš dot, 64, 315 waṭan , 224 waṭaniyya , 251 wave model, 15f. wāw as spelling of /ā/, 33, 49 consecutivum , 20 ending in nouns, 54 in ʿamr , 33 in names, 33, 35, 53f. see also glides weak consonants, 91, 118f., 121 Wellens, I., 308–10 West Bank, 258 White Nile, 288 Wikipedia, 252 Egyptian, 169, 252 Wise, L., 251 Woidich, M., xi, 88, 176–8, 180, 182, 206, 210, 239 women’s speech see female speech word atlas, 177 word order, 52, 99, 136, 233f., 287 free, 55f. words, rare, 71 work jargon, 305 Wright, W., 315 writing, 74 as an aid to memory, 62 knowledge of, 61 written dialect, 168f. written Egyptian Arabic, 168 written language, 153f. written Moroccan Arabic, 169 yāʾ see glides Yāzijī, Nāṣif al-, 225, 231 Yehuda ibn Qurayš, 4 Yemen, Egyptian colloquialisms in, 253 Young Turks, 324 Youssi, A., 269 youth culture, 256 youth language, 256 Zabad, inscription of, 37 Zabīd, Murtaḍā az-, 123 Zaborski, A., 91 Zadeh, T., x, 80f. Ẓāhiriyya aẓ- see Dār al-Kutub aẓ-Ẓāhiriyya zāʾid , pl. zawāʾid , 114f. Zaire, 319 zajal , 74, 315 Zajjājī az-, 67, 124 Zamaḫšarī az-, 79 Zanzibar, 217 Sultanate of, 319 ẓarf pl. ẓurūf 111 zawāʾid see zāʾid Zayd ibn Ṯābit, 62 zero pronoun, 114, 117 Zimmermann, G., 285 ziyāda , 119 Zuhrī az,- 75 Zwartjes, O., 316 Zwettler, M., 53 Document Outline
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