The wto-minus Strategy: Development and human rights under wto law

(last accessed 14 Sep 2007).

107 Singh, supra note 80, pp. 23-24.

108 T. Josling, Overview of trade agreements: the multilateral system, in W. Kerr and J. Gainsford (eds.), Handbook on International Trade Policy 77 (United Kingdom: Edward Elgar, 2007).

109 Id.

110 Economic and Social Council, Globalisation and its impact on the full enjoyment of human rights, E/CN.4/2002/54, p. 15.

111 J. Wolfensohn, President, World Bank Group, Statement to the WTO General Council, 22 October 2004. http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news04_e/gc_world_bank_22oct04_e.htm (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

112 Economic and Social Council, supra note 122, p. 16. (author’s emphasis)

113 The compelling body of evidence gathered by William Easterly, that ethnic conflict and economic development are inversely proportional to each other, would support the wisdom of such an acknowledgement: W. Easterly, Can Institutions Resolve Ethnic Conflict? 2-3 (World Bank, 2000).

114 See, for example, on the subject of the new special and differential treatment measures for developing countries after the Uruguay Round: “[U]nder the WTO, there is a new concern for developing countries. This concern is … [a] recognition that, overall, trade liberalisation is beneficial rather than detrimental to economic development:” M. Matsushita, T. Schoenbaum and P Mavroidis, The World Trade Organisation: Law, Practice and Policy 378(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). See also, for example: “The integration of developing countries in the multilateral trading system is important for their economic development and for global trade expansion. In this connection, we recall that the WTO Agreement embodies provisions conferring differential and more favourable treatment for developing countries, including special attention to the particular situation of least-developed countries:” WTO, Singapore Ministerial Declaration, December 1996, WT/MIN(96)/DEC, paragraph 13. http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min96_e/wtodec_e.htm (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

115 Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, opened for signature 15 April 1994, 1869 UNTS 14 (entered into force 1 January 1995) art. 13 (SCM).

116 AoA, supra note 86, art. 6. For a fuller explanation, see M. Desta, The Law of International Trade in Agricultural Products 328-332 and 413 (Kluwer Law International, 2002).

117 Mercurio, supra note 111, p. 90.

118 K. Anderson, Bringing Discipline to Agricultural Policy via the WTO, in: B. Hoekman and W. Martin, Developing Countries and the WTO: A Pro-Active Agenda 46 (Washington: Blackwell Publishing, 2001).

119 Mercurio, supra note 111, p. 30.

120 This argument is set out extensively in A. Panagariya, Evaluating the Case for Export Subsidies, The World Bank’s Policy Research Working Paper Series 2276 (2000).

121 WTO Ministerial Conference, Doha Work Programme Ministerial Declaration (WT/MIN(05)/DEC), para. 6.

122 Gifford, supra note 115, p. 4.

123 See, for example, J. Walley, Special and Differential Treatment in the Millennium Round, Centre for the Study of Globalisation and Regionalisation (CSGR), Warwick University, Working Paper No. 30/99, p. 8. http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/csgr/research/workingpapers/1999/wp3099.pdf (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

124 Shadlen, supra note 112, p. 759.

125 SCM, supra note 127, Part II.

126 T. H. Moran, The Impact of TRIMs on Trade and Development 1(1) Transnational Corporations 57 (1992). This aspect of TRIMs is, in a sense, an extension of the national treatment obligation in GATT 1947, which prohibits any measures requiring domestic businesses to source their inputs locally, rather than from like imports: GATT 1947 Art. III:4

127 TRIMs, supra note 87. However, TRIMs does not prohibit all such requirements, its effect depending on whether the measure in question violates the national treatment principle or imposes quantitative restrictions. For an analysis and critique, see Shadlen, supra note 112.

128 SCM, supra note 127, Part III. The rules applying to ordinary developing countries do not impose a time limit for phasing out these subsidies and other Member countries are required to take a more ‘generous’ approach to, for example, assuming that they will cause serious prejudice.

129 Ibid, Part IV and art. 31.

130 See, for example, Walley, supra note 135.

131 J. H. Jackson, The World Trading System: Law and Policy of International Economic Relations 24 (London: MIT Press, 1997).

132 India, Submission to WTO: Proposals on Implementation Related Issues and Concerns (TN/RL/W/4) (25 April 2002).

133 M. Shafaeddin, What Did Frederick List Actually Say? Some Clarifications on the Infant Industry Argument, UNCTAD Discussion Paper (UNCTAD/OSG/DP/149) (2000), p. 2. See also H-J. Chang, Kicking Away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective (London: Anthem Press, 2002).

134 N. Birdsall, D. Rodrik and A. Subramanian, How to Help Poor Countries 84(4) Foreign Affairs 145 (2005).

135 Singh, supra note 90, pp. 12-15.

136 Moran, supra note 138, p. 61.

137 R. H. Wade, What strategies are viable for ordinary developing countries today? The World Trade Organization and the shrinking of ‘development space’ 10(4) Review of International Political Economy 631 (2003)..

138 Shadlen, supra note 112, p. 759. Shadlen concludes, however, that the constraints are not comprehensive and that some such measures are still available for use by developing countries.

139 Ibid, pp. 760–1.

140 TRIPS, supra note 77, art. 33.

141 Shadlen, supra note 112, p. 761.

142 Wade, supra note 149, p. 624.

143 Singh, supra note 90, p.7.

144 Ibid, p. 21.

145 Id.

146 Ibid, p. 23. As mentioned earlier, the WTO agreements are referred to as a ‘single undertaking,’ in that Members must join all of the agreements; they cannot choose to join only some.

147 WTO, supra note 85, p. 11.

148 Ibid, p. 12.

149 Ibid, p. 25.

150 D. Hathaway and M. Ingco, Agricultural Liberalization and the Uruguay Round, cited in: Mercurio, supra note 111, p. 80, note 28.

151 This practice is called ‘tariff escalation’: Mercurio, supra note 111, p. 88.

152 AoA, supra note 86, Parts IV and V.

153 GATT Decision of 8 November 1979, supra note 38. Other schemes include the Cotonou Agreement, a non-reciprocal scheme set to expire at the end of 2007 (to be replaced by Economic Partnership Agreements), under which the EU provides duty free access to most exports from African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries.

154 The 1979 GATT Decision waived the most-favoured nation requirement of equal treatment under GATT 1947 Article 1: supra note 38. There are now 16 GSP schemes notified to the World Trade Organisation.

155 T. Palley, Thinking Outside the Box about Trade, Development and Poverty Reduction 2-3 Foreign Policy in Focus 7 (January 18 2006)..

156 D. Rodrik, The global governance of trade as if development really mattered, UNDP, New York, 2001, p. 1.

157 Ibid, p. 2.

158 A. Sen, Development as Freedom 17-18 (New York: Anchor Books, 2000).

159 Potter et al., supra note 71, p. 12.

160 FAO, Brief introduction on Human Rights Based Approach in Development Programs, p. 1.

http://www.fao.org/righttofood/kc/downloads/vl/docs/draft_rightbasedapproach.doc

161 UN, The Human Rights Based Approach to Development Cooperation: Towards a Common Understanding Among UN Agencies, 2004, para 1. http://www.undg.org/archive_docs/3069-Common_understanding_of_a_rights-based_approach.doc (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

162 Ibid, para. 2.

163 UNDG, text headed Human Rights-Based Approach to Development Programming, http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P=221 (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

B. Andreassen, Brief Introduction on the Human Rights Approach to Development, p. 28. http://www.ihmisoikeusliitto.fi/julkaisut/hrbad/andreassen.pdf (last accessed on 1 November 2007).

164 S Harman, All change? Exploring the changes to World Bank policy and practice under the Multi-Country AIDS Programme (MAP), 5 Political Perspectives CIP 2007 Vol. 1(11). Harman is referring specifically to the World Bank’s Comprehensive Development Framework. For further information: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/STRATEGIES/CDF/0,,pagePK:60447~theSitePK:140576,00.html

165 Id.

166 Palley, supra note 167, p. 1.

167 Rodrik, supra note 168, p. 2.

168 P. O’Connell, On Reconciling Irreconcilables: Neo-liberal Globalisation and Human Rights 7 HRLR 494 (2007). See also Santos and Rodriguez-Garavito (eds.), Law and Globalization from Below: Towards a Cosmopolitan Legality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).