This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in Intelligence and National Security

20^ Interview with Thomas L. Hughes. The Library of Congress, The Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection of the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:1:./temp/~ammem_PpXI:: (Accessed 29 December 2011).

21^ The National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 24, ‘The National Security Agency Declassified’, ed. by Jeffery Richelson, Document 23, SSO (Special Security Office), DIA, ‘Implementation Guidance for Elimination of Codewords’, 22 October 1999, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB24/nsa23.pdf, (Accessed 12 February 2011).

22^ National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) Review and Redaction Guide for Automatic Declassification of 25-Year-Old Information (2008), pp. 8, http://www.nro.gov/foia/docs/foia-rrg.pdf, (Accessed 14 January 2011).

23^ Wise, op. cit., pp. 57.

24^ NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945-1989, Book II Centralization Wins, 1960-1972, (Centre for Cryptologic History, NSA 1995), pp. 473, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_ii.pdf (Accessed 19 December 2010); NSA, In Camera Affidavit of Eugene F. Yeates, Citizens Against Unidentified Flying Saucer Secrecy v. National Security Agency, Civil Action 80-1562, 9 October 1980, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/ufo/in_camera_affadavit_yeates.pdf, (Accessed 21 December 2010).

25^ NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002.

26^ NSA, Venona Documents, I.D. Special Analysis Report 1., ‘Covernames in diplomatic traffic’, by ASA I.D., 30 August 1947, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1947/30aug_special_analysis_report1.pdf, (Accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/NBF/T1201, ‘1. Query about a sample sent by Arthur 2. Taylor’s information about guns’, (8 June 1943), 3 January 1961, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_tech_queries.pdf (Accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/PPDT/101, ‘1. Barch’s Meeting 2. Fuch’s and probable reference to atomic energy project’, (10 August 1941), 11 October 1968, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1941/10aug_barch_mtg.pdf, (Accessed 4 January 2011); Intercept 3/PPDT/T106, ‘London Addressee Artur’, (24 July 1941), 29 May 1969, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1941/24jul_artur.pdf, (Accessed 5 January 2011).

27^ Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Venona, Part 1: The American Response to Soviet Espionage, Minute Lamphere to Gardner, ‘FLORA DON WOYSCHIN with alias’, 9 May 1949, https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/25.gif (Accessed 21 December 2010); Minute Lamphere to Gardner, ‘EMIL JULIUS KLAUS FUCHS, aka: Karl Fuchs’, 26 September 1949, https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/28.gif (Accessed 21 December 2010); NSA Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBP/T87, ‘References to a promise of Soviet citizenship to “Lily” and “Aleksandrov” and to Beck’s embarrassment’, (12 November 1944), 11 June 1951, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/12nov_kgb_officers.pdf (Accessed 5 January 2011); Intercept S/NBF/T94, ‘The failure of Albert to reply to the “office”’, (25 August 1944), 4 July 1951, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/25aug_failure_albert_reply.pdf (Accessed 5 January 2011); Intercept S/NBF/T380, ‘Recommendation by “Greek” of certain Germans’, (29 January 1944), 22 September 1953, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29jan_greek.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Amendment to intercept S/NBF/T328, ‘Gustav’, (31 January 1944), 19 October 1953, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/30jan_gustav_p2.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 6/NBF/T224 Reissue, ‘References to “The Polecats”’, (20 May 1944), 11 January 1955, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/20may_trotskyites.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1147 ‘Alex’s absence in Portland’, (23 June 1943), 9 July 1959, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/23jun_code_clerk.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010)

28^ TNA, HW 80/7, Technical Conference for the implementation of the US-British Comint Agreement, 15th July – 26th July, 1948, Appendix B, not dated; HW 80/9, ‘Introduction to the Appendices to the US-Comint Agreement, 1 June 1951; ‘Amendment No. 1 to Appendices to US-British Communications Intelligence Agreement (Third Edition), 27 July 1951; HW 80/10, ‘BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report’, 25 March 1953; HW 80/9, Appendix G, Exchange of Collateral Material and Comint material, 1 October 1953; HW 80/11, UKUSA Agreement, 10 October 1956.

29^ TNA, HW 75/49, Intercept S/AAL/T24 ‘Albanian Security Message’, 19 August 1947; Intercept S/AAL/T23 ‘Albanian Security Reports concerning fugitives and persons attempting to escape into Greece’, 2 September 1947; HW 75/23, Intercept, S/ACK/T65 ‘Mention of decree concerning official relations of Czech offices with foreign consular offices’, 6 July 1949; HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T104 ‘Granting of Leave to SNB Units’, 1 August 1950.

30^ Guy R. Vanderpool, ‘COMINT and the PRC Intervention in the Korean War’, Cryptologic Quarterly, 15/2 (1996) endnote 13, pp. 22.

31^ NSA Venona Documents, Amendment to intercept S/NBF/T328, ‘Gustav’, (31 January 1944), 19 October 1953, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/30jan_gustav_p2.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept S/NBF/T662, ‘Reference to “the distant neighbour’s line”’, (19 February 1946), 10 December 1954, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1946/19feb_distant_neighbor.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010)

32^ HW 75/49, Intercept, S/AAL/T24 ‘Albanian Security Reports concerning fugitives and persons attempting to escape into Greece’, 2 September 1947; HW 75/23 Intercept, S/ACK/T64 ‘State Security Organisation’, 29 June 1949.

33^ NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 6/NBF/T224 Reissue, ‘References to “The Polecats”’, (20 May 1944), 11 January 1955, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/20may_trotskyites.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1143, ‘1. A warning about conduct 2. Proposed transfer of Zyryanov’, (21 February 1943), 16 June 1959, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/21feb_reprimand.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010). However, while the overwhelming majority of Eider documents from Venona and other sources fit within this date range, there are three Venona intercepts from January 1960 marked with Eider. This is the period when Daunt was in use as a code word and the only occasion when two code words overlap. It is not known why this occurred. Perhaps there was simply a shortage of paper pre-printed with the Daunt code word and NSA officials used Eider paper instead.

34^ HW 75/23, Intercept, S/ACK/T65 ‘Mention of decree concerning official relations of Czech offices with foreign consular offices’, 6 July 1949; HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T103 ‘Infiltration of agents into Czechoslovakia’, 17 July 1950.

35^ NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 3/NBF/T1147 ‘Alex’s absence in Portland’, (23 June 1943), 9 July 1959, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/23jun_code_clerk.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1334, ‘Reference to “Oleg”’, (13 May 1945), 13 December 1960, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/13may_oleg.pdf (Accessed 27 December 2010).

36^ HW 75/24, Intercept, S/ACK/T104 ‘Granting of Leave to SNB Units’, 1 August 1950; CIA Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Bulletin, 28 June 1951, http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1951/1951-06-28a.pdf. (Accessed 5 January 2011).

37^ NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept 3/NBF/T1201 Re-issue, ‘1. Query about a sample sent by Arthur 2. Taylor’s information about guns’, (8 June 1943), 3 January 1961, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_tech_queries.pdf (Accessed 27 December 2010); Intercept 3/NBF/T1720, ‘The Despatch and Legalization of the Australian Woman’, (31 December 1942), 24 August 1965, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1942/31dec_naval_gru.pdf (Accessed 27 December 2010).

38^ NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBF/T94, ‘The failure of Albert to reply to the “office”’, (25 August 1944), 4 July 1951, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/25aug_failure_albert_reply.pdf (Accessed 27 December 2010).

CIA FOIA, Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Bulletin, 29 June 1952, http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1952/1952-06-29.pdf (Accessed 5 January 2011).

39^ NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002.

40^ CIA FOIA, Special Collections: Korean War, Current Intelligence Digest, 1 July 1952, http://www.foia.cia.gov/KoreanWar/DailyReports/1952/1952-07-01a.pdf (Accessed 5 January 2011); NSA, Venona Documents, Intercept S/NBF/T380, ‘Recommendation by “Greek” of certain Germans’, (29 January 1944), 22 September 1953, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29jan_greek.pdf (Accessed 26 December 2010).

41^NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002; Richelson, op. cit., pp. 513.

42^ TNA, HW 80/10, BRUSA Planning Conference 1953, Final Report, Appendix B, BPC53/B/Final, 19 March 1953.

43^ TNA, HW 80/11 UK-US Communications Intelligence Agreement (UKUSA Agreement), Appendix B, Not dated.

44^ NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002; James Bamford, The Puzzle Palace: A Report on America’s Most Secret Agency, (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1983), pp. 162.

45^ Wise, op. cit., pp. 57; Bamford, op. cit., pp. 161-162.

46^ Ibid; NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945-1989, Book II Centralization Wins, 1960-1972, (Centre for Cryptologic History, NSA 1995), pp. 473-4.

47^ Ibid.

48^ Aid, op. cit. , pp. 141-142.

49^ NSA, Thomas Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945-1989, Book II Centralization Wins, 1960-1972, (Centre for Cryptologic History, NSA 1995), pp. 448; National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 278, The Secret Sentry Declassified, Document 24, Les Actes D’Agression Declares de L’Imperialisme U.S. Contre Le Peuple Coreen, (Pyongyang, Editions en Langues Etrangeres 1968) (extract) http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/24.PDF, (Accessed 4 March 2011).

50^ National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 278, The Secret Sentry Declassified, Document 3, Robert Newton, The Capture of the USS Pueblo and its effect on SIGINT Operations, US Cryptologic History, Special Series, Crisis Collection, Vol. 7, (Ft. Meade, Center for Cryptologic History 1992), pp. 124, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/03.PDF, (Accessed 4 March 2011).

51^ NSA, Cryptologic Almanac, 50th Anniversary Series, ‘Quiz’, July/August 2002;

52^ Ibid; Kimbo: NSA, Cuban Missile Crisis, ‘Reflection of Soviet Bloc Pilots/Technicians in Cuban Air Force Training’, 24 August 1962 http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cuban_missile_crisis/24_august_reflection.pdf, (Accessed 5 April 2011); Sabre: NSA, Cuban Missile Crisis, ‘Cuban Air Force VHF communications procedure’, 17 May 1962, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cuban_missile_crisis/17_may_cuban_air.pdf, (Accessed 5 April 2011).

53^ Bamford, op. cit., pp. 398; TNA, HW 75/30, Note ZIP/RUP/C9 ‘Note on the RUP/T series’, 17 January 1947.

54^ Richelson, op. cit., pp. 512-514.

55^ In an interview with Oliver Kirby, his period in the NSA’s Office of Collection from approximately 1954 to 1956, was described as ‘pre-GAMMA time’: NSA, Declassification and Transparency, Oral History Interviews, Oliver R. Kirby NSA-OH-20-93, pp. 53, 55-56, http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/oral_history_interviews/nsa_oh_20_92_kirby.pdf, (Accessed 4 April 2011). Gamma appears on a State Department document from 1967: Declassified Document Reference System (DDRS), Intelligence Note, ‘The Soviet Contribution to the Start of the Current Mid-East Crisis’, Denney to Secretary of State, 1 June 1967.

56^ Aid, op. cit., pp. 144-145, 152-153; Bamford, op. cit., pp. 160.

57^ Digital National Security Archive, Department of the Air Force, Administration of the Gamma Control Program, FTD Regulation 205-9, 3 January 1989.

58^ Bamford, op. cit., pp. 160-161.

59^ Aid, op. cit., pp. 144-145, 152-153.

60^ DDRS, Intelligence Note, ‘The Soviet Contribution to the Start of the Current Mid-East Crisis’, Denney to Secretary of State, 1 June 1967.

61^ CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 00578/63, 8 February 1963; Intelligence Memorandum SC No 06810/66, ‘Buildup of Vietnamese Communist forces continues after resumption of air attacks’, 21 February 1966; National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 187, U.S. Intelligence and the Indian Bomb, Document 16, NSA Comint Report, ‘Capital Projects Planned in India’, 31 August 1972, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB187/IN16.pdf, (Accessed 2 March 2011).

62^ CIA FOIA, Central Intelligence Bulletin, 6 September 1972.

63^ Ibid. The top secret version was only to be seen by US personnel indoctrinated and authorised to receive Comint; FRUS, 1969-1976, Volume II, Organization and Management of US Foreign Policy, 1969-1972, Document 217, Memorandum Latimer to Kissinger, 1 December 1970, pp. 468.

64^ Federation of American Scientists, CIA, Centre for the Study of Intelligence, Intelligence Monograph, ‘Critique of the Codeword Compartment in the CIA’, March 1977, http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/codeword.html, (Accessed 14 February 2011); National Security Archive. Electronic Briefing Book No. 225, ‘Secrecy and U.S. Satellite Reconnaissance, 1958-1976’, Document 23, Chief Special Intelligence Staff, Special Centre Notice 6-64, ‘Classification of Talent and Keyhole Information’, 16 January 1964, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB225/doc23.pdf, (Accessed February 27 2011).

65^ FRUS, 1969-1976, Volume II, Organization and Management of US Foreign Policy, 1969-1972, Document 217, Memorandum Latimer to Kissinger, 1 December 1970, pp. 468.

66^ CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 03826/56, 30 August 1956.

67^ CIA FOIA, Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 01999/58, 3 April 1958; Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 00578/63, 8 February 1963.

68^ TNA, CAB 176/59, Minute JIC/2691/56 Atkinson to JIC, 2 November 1956.

69^ TNA, AIR 19/852, Minute W.M.L MacDonald to ACAS(P), 5 November 1956.

70^ NRO, Review and Redaction Guide for Automatic Declassification of 25-Year-Old Information (2008), pp. 149.

71^ CIA FOIA, CIA Report, CIA/SC/RR 122, ‘Soviet Defense Expenditures’, 27 October 1955.

72^ CIA FOIA, Memorandum SC No. 00613/63B, ‘France’s Position in Tropical Africa’, 11 October 1963; DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence material reported to the President’, 16 April 1959; CIA FOIA, Intelligence Memorandum, ‘India-Pakistan: Comparative Capabilities in a New Military Confrontation’, 13 September 1971; DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence Material Reported to the President’, 11 August 1960; CIA FOIA, Intelligence Memorandum SC No. 09646/66, ‘The Effectiveness of the Rolling Thunder Program in North Vietnam 1 January – 30 September 1966’, November 1966; DDRS, CIA Intelligence Memorandum SC No. 03818/66, ‘South Africa on the Crest of the Wave’, 30 August 1966; CIA FOIA, Special Intelligence Estimate, SIE-5, ‘The Scale and Nature of the Soviet Air Defense Effort 1952-4’, 3 December 1952.

73^ DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence Material Reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 11 August 1960.

74^ Cold War International History Project, CWIHP Document Reader, ‘The Congo Crisis, 1960-1961’, edited by Lise Namikas and Sergey Mazov, Minute Amory to Director for Intelligence, The Joint Staff, JCS, 9 September 1960, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Congo%201960-611.pdf, (Accessed 2 March 2011)

75^ Sergei Mazov, ‘Soviet Aid to the Gizenga Government in the Former Belgian Congo (1960-61) as Reflected in Russian Archives’, Cold War History, 7/3 (2007), pp. 431.

76^ DDRS, CIA Current Intelligence Weekly Review, SC No. 01165/61, 25 May 1961.

77^ FRUS, 1964-1968, Volume XXXI, South and Central America; Mexico, Document 176, Information Memorandum, Rostow to Johnson, 26 June 1968, pp. 392.

78^ Bamford, op. cit., pp. 495, 497, 499.

79^ Audrey R. Kahin and George McT. Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia (New York: The New Press 1995).

80^ DDRS, ‘Synopsis of Intelligence material reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 4 March 1959; ‘Synopsis of Intelligence material reported to the President’ by John Eisenhower, 18 March 1959.

81^ Bamford, op. cit., pp. 189-190.

82^ Aid, op. cit., pp. 145-146.

83^ Jack Anderson, ‘U.S. Is Forced to Spy on Saigon’, Washington Post,. April 30, 1971, pp. 19, D19

84^ Aid, op. cit., pp. 145-147

85^ Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept The Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1979) pp. 198.

86^ FRUS, 1964-1968, Volume VII, Vietnam, September 1968 – January 1969, Document 186, Editorial Note, pp. 536-537.

87^ Ibid, Document 195, Notes of Meeting, 5 November 1968, pp. 566.

88^ DDRS, Telegram KAB518, DIRNSA to White House, 21 October 1968.

89^ CIA FOIA, Minute SC No. 10078/65/a, Cline to Bundy, 18 August 1965; Memorandum SC No. 10078/65, ‘Probable Effects in China and Taiwan of a GRC Attack on the Mainland’, 18 August 1965.

90^ Ibid; John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Digital Archives, China: Security, 1962-63, ‘The President’s Intelligence Checklist’, 19 June 1962.

91^ Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan 2001), pp. xv, 261 endnote 67.

92^ Ibid; Allen S. Whiting, ‘China’s Use of Force, 1950-96, and Taiwan’, International Security, 26/2 (2001), pp. 111, footnote 31.

93^ DDRS, Memorandum, Hilsman to Harriman, ‘Evidence of Peiping’s Concern over Possible GRC-US Intentions’, 22 June 1962.

94^ Allen S. Whiting, ‘China’s Use of Force, 1950-96, and Taiwan’, International Security, 26/2 (2001), pp. 114

95^ Allen S. Whiting, The Chinese Calculus of Deterrence: India and Indochina, (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan 2001), pp. 177.

96^ The CIA has actually declassified two copies of the report and redacted different sections on each copy. By comparing the two reports it possible to see the full text of the section ‘Military Preparations in Communist China’ and the code word DINAR. See CIA FOIA, Special Report SC No. 00657/65C, ‘Chinese communists brace for possible spread of Indochina War’, Copies numbered 014 and 407, 12 February 1965.

97^ Chen Jian, Mao’s China and the Cold War, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2001), pp. 208-209, 213-214; Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: the Unknown Story, (London: Jonathan Cape 2005), pp 502.