Annotated bibliography on

20(7): 317-321.

In areas where indigenous peoples have a strong conservation ethic, the creation of reserves under partial or complete aboriginal control represents a viable alternative to the more traditional forms of land acquisition. This proposition is tested by analysis of reserves in Samoa.

Cox, P. A. and T. Elmqvist (1993). “Ecocolonialism and Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Village Controlled Rainforest Preserves in Samoa.” Pacific Conservation Biology 1(1): 6-13.

Ecocolonialism, the imposition of European conservation paradigms and power structures on indigenous villagers, is incompatible with the principles of indigenous control of village rainforest preserves. The authors consider this proposition in the context of Samoa and offer suggestions for the establishment of future village-controlled preserves in other areas of the South Pacific.

Cox, P. A. and M. J. Balick (1994). “The Ethnobotanical Approach to Drug Discovery.” Scientific American: 82-87.

Medicinal plants discovered by traditional societies are proving to be an important source of potentially therapeutic drugs.

Coyne, P. (1995). Could Dying Languages Help us to Decipher Human Prehistory? New Statesman & Society: 30.

It is predicted that by the year 2000 over 90% of the world’s languages will have disappeared.

Cragg, G. M., M. R. Boyd, et al. (1992). Conservation of Biodiversity for Development of Pharmaceutical Crops: Drug Discovery and Development at the United States National Cancer Institute.

Explains the work of the NCI in relation to natural products screening. Many of the products are collected in developing countries and the NCI has produced a letter of intent to address the questions of equity and conservation.

Cragg, G. M., M. R. Boyd, et al. (1994). Policies for International Collaboration and Compensation in Drug Discovery and Development at the United States National Cancer Institute, the NCI Letter of Collection. Intellectual Property Rights for Indigenous Peoples: A Sourcebook. T. Greaves. Oklahoma City, SfAA: 83-98.

NCI scientists present the institution’s Letter of Collection, which is intended to guarantee equitable benefit sharing with countries providing genetic resources through the Institute’s bioprospecting programmes.

Cragg, G. M. and M. R. Boyd (1996). Drug Discovery and Development at the National Cancer Institute. The Role of Natural Products of Plant Origin. Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health. M. J. Balick, E. Elisabetsky and S. A. Laird. New York, Columbia University Press: 101-136.

The US National Cancer Institute is a major institution in natural products research. This chapter described the role of plant in drug discovery and development at the NCI.

Cragg, G., D. J. Newman, et al. (1997). “Natural Products in Drug Discovery and Development.” Journal of Natural Products 60(1): 52-60.

Through an analysis of the number and sources of anticancer and antiinfective agents, 60% of new approved drugs are of natural origin (i.e. original natural products, products derived semisynthetically from natural products, or synthetic products based on natural product models). The review highlights the invaluable role that natural products have played, and continue to play, in the drug discovery process, particularly in the areas of cancer and infectious diseases.

Craig, D. (1994). Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity: Indigenous Peoples Issues. 6-8 June. R. C. o. t. B. Convention. Manila, Asian Development Bank & IUCN.

Discusses indigenous peoples’ issues as they relate to implementation of the CBD.

Craig, D. and D. P. Nava (1995). Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and Environmental Law. UNEP’s New Way Forward: Environmental Law and Sustainable Development. S. Lin. Nairobi, UNEP: 115-45.

Attempts to expand and enhance the international law and policy of sustainable development. The growing legal recognition of the comprehensive rights of indigenous peoples has increased the protection of their customary laws and practices relating to sustainable development. This paper argues that indigenous sustainable development is an integrated cultural concept that cannot be separated from other indigenous rights such as human rights, land rights, and the right to self-government.

Craig, J. (1996). Ethics and Ethnobotany: Intellectual Property Rights and Indigenous Knowledge. Environmental Studies Program. Victoria, Canada, University of Victoria.

Research and documentation of traditional knowledge, including ethnobotanical research, can be of great benefit and importance to both indigenous and non-indigenous peoples. However, this pursuit raises many ethical issues including ownership and control of knowledge, compensation, and conservation concerns. The purpose of this paper is to examine the conceptual and practical problems of IPRs, to discuss benefits and concerns of ethnobotanical research, and to outline strategies that have been used to promote ethical and fair sharing of indigenous knowledge.

Crespi, S. (1995). “Biotechnology Patenting: The Wicked Animal Must Defend Itself.” European Intellectual Property Review 9: 431-441.

Vigorous defence of biotechnology patents. The author dismisses the objections to such patents, such as ethics and morality, and argues that ‘patenting life’ is a meaningless slogan.

Crosby, A. W. (1986). Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

People of European descent form the bulk of the population in most of the temperate zones of the world. The military successes of European imperialism are easy to explain. But the Europeans’ displacement and replacement of the native people in the temperate zones was more a matter of biology than of military conquest, as this book explains.

Crowe, T. M. (1995). “Wildlife Utilization: Science vs. Ethics and Northern vs. Southern Perspectives.” South African Journal of Science 91: 375-6.

Advocates the cause of sustainable utilisation of wildlife, arguing that scientists and protected area managers should close ranks on common objectives and counteract radical green groups. Northern anthropolarity and cultural imperialism must be replaced by an African reality translated into homes, schools and jobs.

Crucible Group (1994). People, Plants and Patents: The Impact of Intellectual Property on Trade, Plant Biodiversity, and Rural Society. Ottawa, International Development Research Centre.

Decisions about IPRs, particularly for plants, have major implications for food security, agriculture, rural development, and the environment for every country in the world. For the developing world in particular, the impact of IPRs on farmers, rural societies, and biodiversity will be profoundly important. In this fast-changing and politicised field, this book identifies and examines the major issues and the range of policy alternatives including consensus positions and the various conflicting viewpoints.

Crucible Group II (2000). Seeding Solutions. Volume 1. Policy Options for Genetic Resources: People, Plants and Patents Revisited. Ottawa, Rome and Uppsala, International Development Research Centre, International Plant Genetic Resources Institute and Dag Hammarskjold Foundation.

Volume 1 of Seeding Solutions brings readers up to date on what has changed, scientifically, politically and environmentally, since the first publication in 1994 of People, Plants, and Patents, the book that summarised the major issues related to the ownership, conservation and exchange of plant germplasm. Vol. 1 offers policymakers a clear description of the facts, the fights and the fora relevant to genetic resources.

Cruikshank, J. (1984). Oral Tradition and Scientific Research: Approaches to Knowledge in the North, Association of Canadian Universities for Northern Studies. 9: 3-23.

Argues that northern values are informed by indigenous oral intellectual tradition which presents contrasting theoretical framework to that provided by western science.

Cruikshank, J. (1990). “Getting the Words Right: Perspectives on Naming and Places in Athapaskan Oral History.” Arctic Anthropology 27(1): 52-65.

Reviews debate concerning value of oral history, particularly place name studies, for ethnohistorical research. Draws on oral evidence form western sub-Arctic to show variety of ways in which six individuals use named locations in space to discuss events in time.

CSE (1996). Defining Rights. Notebook. A Newsletter from the Centre for Science and Environment: 7.

Basmati rice is being grown in the US as ‘texmati’ rice by TiceTec, which had taken the germplasm from the International Rice Research Institute genebank in the Philippines. Although the government has taken action to have texmati rice banned in the UK, CSE argues that a more permanent solution should centre around the much-awaited Plant Varieties Protection Act.

Cultural Survival CULTURAL SURVIVAL QUARTERLY. Cambridge, MA.

A journal that provides in-depth analysis on topics affecting the survival and rights of indigenous peoples and ethnic minorities around the world.

Cunningham, A. B. and S. J. Pieser (1988). Kwa Mhlabauyalingana. Primary Health Care Booklet. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal.

Provides advice to Zulu people on nutritious traditional cultivated and wild plant foods. The information is an example of academic research findings being returned to the community while addressing a traditional conservation issue. Written in Zulu and English

Cunningham, A. B. (1990). People and Medicines: The Exploitation and Conservation of Traditional Zulu Medicinal Plants. Proceedings of the Twelfth Plenary Meeting of aetfat. Symposium VIII. Mitt. Inst. Allg. Bot. Hamburg. Hamburg: 979-990.

Extensive use is made of medicinal plants in developing countries, either because people cannot afford Western pharmaceuticals or because traditional medicines are more acceptable. South Africa is no exception to this and a massive trade in herbal medicines has developed to supply the urban demand. Wild plant populations are the main source of supply. Assessment of the extent of damage due to bark removal shows that this form of species selective exploitation is a major threat to particular species associations in Afromontaine and subtropical lowland forest.

Cunningham, A. B. (1991). “Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 15(3): 4-8.

Ethnobiologists and anthropologists have an essential role to play in preventing loss of traditional knowledge and biodiversity. Discusses ethics involved in research and the possibility that benefits of research can be captured and distributed through various means: labelling, sources, patents and contracts, researchers as brokers and advisors. Distributing benefits may be a problem.

Cunningham, A. B. and F. T. Mbenkum (1993). Sustainability of Harvesting Prunus Africana Bark in Cameroon: A Medicinal Plant in International Trade. Paris, UNESCO.

Describes case of a multiple-use tree species with local and international economic and medicinal value. An initial assessment is made of cultivation as an alternative source of supply and recommendations for practical action to promote the sustainable use of the bark are made.

Cunningham, A. B. (1993). African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface between Conservation and Primary Healthcare. Paris, UNESCO.

Sustainable management of traditional medicinal plant resources is important, not only because of their value as a potential source of new drugs, but due to reliance on traditional medicinal plants for health. Author identifies priority areas for cooperative action between healthcare professionals and conservationists.

Cunningham, A. B. (1993). Ethics, Ethnobiological Research and Biodivesity. Gland, World Wide Fund for Nature.

Deals with the ethical problems connected with ethnobiological and biochemical prospecting. As global common property, biodiversity tends to be eroded when it is utilised. Therefore it is necessary to formulate guidelines for equitable partnerships in natural product research. Several existing ethical guidelines are reviewed. The paper concludes with new recommendations for a code of practice.

Cunningham, A. B. (1996). Conservation, Knowledge and New Natural Products Development: Partnership or Piracy? Valuing Local Knowledge: Indigenous Peoples and Intellectual Property Rights. S. B. Brush and D. Stabinsky. Covelo, CA, Island Press.

Proposes guidelines for equitable and environmentally sound collection, use and development of new natural products derived from biochemicals (especially pharmaceuticals).

Cunningham, A. B. (1996). People, Park and Plant Use: Recommendations for Multiple-USe Zones and Development Alternatives Around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Paris, UNESCO.

Focuses on resource use and management issues relating to wild plants and multiple-use zoning in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda.

Cunningham, H. and S. Scharper (1996). The Human Genome Project Patenting Indigenous People. Penang, Third World Network.

The authors explore from both an ethical and an anthropological perspective, the role of indigenous people in the Human Genome Diversity Project. They argue that because of their historical position as marginalised people and their exploitation by political and corporate interests, the role of indigenous people in the Project is highly problematic.

Cunningham, A. B. (1996). Whose Knowledge and Whose Resources? Ethnobotanists as Brokers between Two Worlds. The Challenges of Ethnobiology in the 21st Century. P. Shengji, S. Yong-ge, L. Chun-Lin, K. Marr and D. A. Posey. Kunming, Yunnan Science and Technology Press: 1-6.

Raises the general issue of research ethics relating to recording traditional knowledge, and how this affects placement of a value on biological resources, taking medicinal plant genetic resources as an example. The author outlines different perception towards recording ethnobotanical information, and then discusses some of the complexities of ‘capturing’ benefits from such knowledge as well as the complexities of distributing benefits that may arise.

Daes, E.-I. A. (1991). The Question of the Ownership and Control of the Cultural Property of Indigenous Peoples. Geneva, UN ECOSOC Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities: 15.

Deals with cultural property as it concerns indigenous peoples, in particular the issues of return, restitution and protection of cultural property, including skeletal remains, folklore, crafts and skills.

Daes, E.-I. A. (1993). Study on the Protection of the Cultural and Intellectual Property of Indigenous Peoples. Geneva, UN ECOSOC Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.

Study requested by the UN Commission on Human Rights to consider ways to strengthen respect by the international community for the intellectual and cultural property rights of indigenous peoples. The Study argues that it would be more appropriate to refer to the collective ‘heritage’ of a people than to intellectual and cultural property. The Study concludes with recommendations for action by the international community.

Daes, E.-I. (1995). Protection of the Heritage of Indigenous Peoples. Final Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mrs Erica-Irene Daes, in Conformity with Subcommission Resolution 1993/44 and Decision 1994/105 of the Commission on Human Rights. Geneva, UN ECOSOC Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.

The document reviews and responds to comments on the draft of the Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of the Heritage of Indigenous Peoples provided by governments, specialised agencies and indigenous NGOs. It also provides a revised draft of these Principles and Guidelines.

Daes, E.-I. A. (1996). Background Paper Containing a Concise Overview of the United Nations System’s Activities Regarding Indigenous Peoples. Geneva, UN ECOSOC Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.

Background paper for a UN Expert Seminar on Practical Experiences Regarding Indigenous Land Rights and Claims, which took place in Whitehorse, Canada from 24-28 March 1996.

Daes, E.-I. (1997). Indigenous Peoples and their Relationship to Land. Preliminary Working Paper Prepared by Mrs Erica-Irene Daes, Special Rapporteur. Geneva, UN ECOSOC Commission on Human Rights, Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities.

Paper on indigenous peoples and their relationship to land, which is divided into the following sections: (i) Relationship of indigenous peoples to their lands, territories and resources; (ii) Histroy and background: impact of the doctrines of dispossession; (iii) Framework for the analysis of contemporary problems regarding indigenous land rights; (iv) efforts to resolve indigenous land issues; (v) Conclusion; and (vi) Recommendations.

Dahl, K. and G. P. Nabhan (1992). Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources: Grassroots Efforts in North America. Nairobi, Kenya / Maastricht, The Netherlands, ACTS.

Describes the grass roots genetic conservation movement in North America. Authors argue that genetic erosion cannot be explained by the introduction of exotic hybrids alone. There are several factors involved, including acculturation and changes in the local economic base. In the future more funding is going to be necessary.

Dahl, J. and L. Lyck (1992). Development of Indigenous and Circumpolar Peoples Rights. Nordic Arctic Research on Contemporary Arctic Problems. Proceedings from Nordic Arctic Research Symposium. Copenhagen, Nordic Arctic Research Forum: 183-189.

Highlights some major rights for which indigenous peoples seek recognition. Focuses on autonomy and self-government.

Daly, D. (1990). Extractive Reserves: A Great New Hope. Garden. 14: 14-22.

Paints an optimistic picture of the Amazon extractive reserves, which offer a brighter future for some of Amazonia’s most marginalised people and for the rain forest itself.

Daly, H. and R. Goodland (1993). “An Ecological-Economic Assessment of Deregulation of International Commerce Under GATT.” International Journal of Sustainable Development 1(4): 53-82.

Discusses the ecological-economic implications of deregulation of trade as promoted by GATT. The paper outlines fifteen overlapping problems with deregulation of international trade.

Daly, D. C. and C. F. Limbach (1996). The Contribution of the Physician to Medicinal Plant Research. Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forest: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health. M. J. Balick, E. Elisabetsky and S. A. Laird. New York, Columbia University Press: 48-62.

Ethnobotany, once a mostly academic pursuit, has become an increasingly complex endeavour encompassing new environmental, cultural, legal, political, ethical, and even commercial concerns. Planning medicinal plant research has therefore become more problematic. More physicians are beginning to participate in ethnopharmacological projects and in issues related to medicinal plant use.

Danheiser, S. L. (1993). Low Levels of Mutant HDLs in Italian Town Appear to Ward off Cardiovascular Disease. Genetic Engineering News.

Report on biotechnology research in an Italian village. Some of the inhabitants have a very interesting mutant gene.

Daniels, R. J. R., M. Hedge, et al. (1991). “Assigning Conservation Value: A Case Study From India.” Conservation Biology 5(14): 464-475.

Authors assign conservation values to ecological zones habitat types and specific localities on the basis of occurrence of bird taxa. They claim their prescriptions would be a useful input into working out an overall conservation strategy for a geographical region.

Daniels, R. J. R., M. D. S. Chandran, et al. (1993). “A Strategy for Conserving the Biodiversity of Uttara Kannada: A District in South India.” Environmental Conservation 20(2): 131-138.

Large-scale loss of biodiversity is a result of development strategies that favour the interests of urban elites. Instead, conserving biodiversity must relate to the overall development strategy and be concerned with the whole landscape of natural, semi-natural and man-made biological communities. It has to involve people especially the local rural and tribal communities as partners in the conservation effort.

Daniels, R. J. R. (1995). Value Addition: A Threat to Calophyllum Species. Current Science. 68: 243.

Three species of Calophyllum, a genus of trees growing in several Asian and African countries, show anti-AIDS activity. The south India species of this genus are on the decline due to over-exploitation, and concern is expressed that value addition by way of finding use in the anti-AIDS industry may prove to be a threat to the continued existence of the genus unless immediate protective measures are taken.

Daniels, R. J. R., M. Gadgil, et al. (1995). “Impact of Human Extraction on Tropical Humid Forests in the Western Ghats in Uttara Kannada, South India.” Journal of Applied Ecology 32: 866-74.

The Western Ghats region is one of the 18 biodiversity hot spots. The study suggests that human-induced disturbances may be responsible for considerable levels of biomass loss, as well as for local extinctions of several evergreen tree species of high conservation value.

Daniels, R. J. R. and J. Vencatesan (1995). Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources. Current Science. 69: 569-70.

Argues that traditional ecological knowledge is connected to the sustainable use of natural resources. However, it is important not to adopt a romantic view that blinds people to the environmental damage that local communities can also cause.

Dasgupta, S. (1996). Welcoming the Pirates. Down to Earth: 36-9.

In India, the issue of genetic resources has apparently introduced ‘a new dimension to national security’. Though some scientists are making desperate attempts to develop protection models, the government and official scientific establishment are slow to take effective action. Two initiatives are described: the Community (People’s) Biodiversity Registers Programme and the TBGRI benefit sharing agreement with the Kani tribals.

Davidson, D., P. J. Hylands, et al. (1996). Development of Pharmaceutical Companies Based on Plant Products: Suggested Approaches. Medicinal Resources of the Tropical Forests: Biodiversity and Its Importance to Human Health. M. J. Balick, E. Elisabetsky and S. A. Laird. USA, Columbia University Press: 19-40.

Argues that commercial benefits can be obtained from natural products, pharmaceutical research and ethnopharmacology. Also discusses work of various companies involved in this kind of research and outlines business strategies to make start-up companies successful.

Davis, S. H. (1988). Land Rights and Indigenous Peoples. The Role of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cultural Survival. 29.

Explains the role of IACHR in protecting the land rights of indigenous peoples.

Davis, S. H. (1993). Pathways to Economic Development Through Intellectual Property Rights. 12-18 June. F. I. C. o. t. C. a. I. P. R. o. I. Peoples. Whakatane, New Zealand.

Indigenous IPRs must be legally recognised and protected, but will not necessarily lead to indigenous economic development and prosperity. The development challenges facing indigenous peoples go far beyond IPR or the promise of ‘bioprospecting’, and have more to do with self-determination.

Davis, S. H. and K. E. Ebbe (1993). Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development. Washington, DC, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.

The proceedings of the 1993 United Nations International Year of the World’s Indigenous Peoples Conference, held in Washington D.C., September 27 - 28, 1993. The World Bank’s Environment Department hosted the conference to discuss the role of traditional knowledge in areas such as land use planning and environmental protection, food security and agricultural sustainability, health and medicine, and traditional governance. The conference also highlighted the importance of traditional knowledge to the cultural survival of indigenous people. These proceedings summarise the major findings and recommendations of the conference. They discuss how traditional knowledge might contribute to strengthening environmentally and socially sustainable forms of development. The report also includes the edited transcript from a roundtable discussion that took place after the conference in which the participants elaborated on the key issues.

Davis, S. H. e. (1993). The Social Challenge of Biodiversity Conservation. Washington DC, Global Environment Facility.

An exploration of the sociology of biodiversity conservation. Starting with the assumption that indigenous communities and NGOs are essential to the success of any conservation measures, the volume examines how best their participation can be achieved.

Davis, S. H. and A. Wali (1994). “Indigenous Land Tenure and Tropical Forest Management in Latin America.” Ambio