Assessment of motivational patterns of women entrepreneurs in ngo sector and their impact on economic development case Study

Theory X Assumptions

The assumptions underlining theory X are;

1. 
   Average human beings dislike work and will avoid work if possible.
   
2. 
   People’s hatred to work results in them being coerced, controlled, directed and forced to achieve a particular goal.
   
3. 
   Average human being liked to be directed and will avoid responsibility, want little ambition and want security in their place of work.
   

Theory Y Assumptions

The assumptions under theory Y include the following;

1. 
   The use of physical and mental effort of people in execution of their work is as natural as play or rest.
   
2. 
   The use of force and punishment to make people work is not the only way of getting people to work because some people naturally like work and will exercise self control and self- direction to get their task being executed.
   
3. 
   The degree of commitment to work is in direct proportion with the degree of the rewards associated with the achievement such work.
   
4. 
   Average human being learn not only to accept responsibility but also to achieve responsibility.
   
5. 
   The ability to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organizational problems is broadly distributed.
   
6. 
   The intellectual potentiality of the average human being is only partially utilized under the condition of modern industrial life.
   

Relating McGregor’s theory X and Y to entrepreneurship, both theory X and Y are related to factors that influence women entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial concept which has to do with certain attributes such as hard work, competitiveness, drive and energy, etc. can only be identified with theory Y. On the other hand, theory X has a way of defining or determining women entrepreneurs’ choice of business ownership. Women under theory X will rather choose the type of enterprise that will not exact much stress on them.

(e) Expectancy Theory

Another theory of motivation is expectancy theory propounded by Vroom (1964). According to him, people will be motivated to do things if they believe in the worth of that goal and if they can see that what they do will help them in achieving it (Koontz and Weihrich, 2001). Considering Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory, people will be motivated to start business if they have the expectation that the outcome of such business will enable them to achieve a particular set of goals. Motivation is therefore a product of the anticipated worth that an individual places on a goal and the chances he or she sees of achieving that goal (Koontz and Weihrich, 2001). It is the value people place on the outcome of their effort whether positive or negative, multiplied by the confidence they have that their effort will materially aid achieving a goal that determines their motivation toward doing anything. To buttress more on this point, Vroom (1964) further demonstrated this in an equation as;

Motivation = Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) *
Connection of Success and Reward (Instrumentality) *
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valance, Value)

or

F = v x e where: f = force, v = valance, and e = expectancy

Force = valence X expectancy,

Where Force is the strength of someone’s motivation,

Valence is the strength of a person’s preference for an outcome.

Expectancy is the drive that leads to result/outcome. Schermerhorn (2004) further argued that expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to a desired outcome. In other words, Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion. That is

M = E x I x V , hence, if either E, I, or V is low, motivation to entrepreneurial activity will also be low.

Since this formula states that the three factors, expectancy, instrumentality, and Valance or Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all the three factors must be present in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an individual does not believe he or she can be successful at a task or the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success or the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, the three variables must be high for motivation and the resulting entrepreneurial behaviour to be high also (Huitt, 2001).

The equation also means that the force a person exerted to do something depends on both the valance and expectancy. Relating this to entrepreneurship, the force women exerted to go into entrepreneurship will depend on their preference for an outcome and the probability that going into business will lead to the desired outcome which will propel action for high performance. Schermerhorn’s (2004) study further revealed three major elements that can affect entrepreneur’s performance. These include; entrepreneur’s exerts work effort, task performance and work related outcome. The diagram below explains this further;

Figure 12: Elements in the Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Entrepreneurs’ exerts work effort

Task performance

Work related outcome

To achieve and realize

Expectancy
Can I achieve the desired level of task performance

Instrumentality
What work outcomes will be received as a result of motivation

Valence
How highly do I value work outcome



Source: Schermerhorn (2004)

Figure 12 above can be explained as key expectancy theory variables. Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance; Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards and Valence — value a woman entrepreneur assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes determines her entrepreneurial motivation (Schermerhorn, 2004). The implications of expectancy theory shows that each of the variables in the theory affects the entrepreneurial performance as explained thus: (i) to maximize expectancy, women entrepreneurs should: select workers with ability; train workers to use ability; support work efforts and clarify performance goals. (ii) to maximize instrumentality, women entrepreneurs should: clarify psychological contracts; communicate performance-outcome possibilities; identify rewards that are contingent on performance. (ii) To maximize valence in a positive direction, women entrepreneurs should: identify individual needs and adjust rewards to match individual needs (Schermerhorn, 2004). This can be further represented in a diagram as below;

Figure 13: Entrepreneurial implication of Expectancy Theory

To Maximize Expectancy

Make the person competent and capable of achieving life desired performance level

* Select workers with ability

* Train workers to use ability

* Support work efforts

* Clarify performance goals

To Maximize Instrumentality

Make the person confident in understanding which rewards and outcomes will follow performance accomplishments

* Clarify psychological contracts

* Communicate performance

outcome possibilities

*Demonstrate what rewards

are contingent on performance
To Maximize Valance

Make the person understand the value of various possible rewards and work outcome

* Identify individual needs

* Adjust rewards to match these needs

Source: Schermerhorn (2004)
(f) Equity Theory

Equity theory as a motivational theory is propounded by Stacey (1963). According to Stacey (1963) an individual’s perception of a reward structure as equity determines how he or she is being motivated in doing a particular work. This theory refers to an individual’s subjective judgments about the fairness of the reward he or she gets in, relation to the inputs (which include factors, such as effort, experience and education), in comparison with the rewards of others (Koontz and Weihrich, 2001). This theory can be written in an equation as:

Outcomes by a person = outcomes by another person

Inputs by a person inputs by another person

In other words, the outcomes and inputs relationship for one person in comparison with another person should balance. This can further be put in a model as;
Figure 14: Equity Theory
Inequitable reward

Dissatisfaction

reduces

Output Departure from Organisation

Balance or imbalance of reward

Equitable reward

Satisfaction increases Output Departure from Organisation

More than equitable Reward

Dissatisfaction Reduced Output Departure from Organisation





Source: Koontz and Weihrich (2001, P.474)
According to equity theory, inequitable reward may lead to dissatisfaction which may lead to someone’s withdrawal from organization to start up his or her own business. This dissatisfaction which is usually regarded as a ‘push factor’ can lead women into entrepreneurship. Schermerhorn (2004) also argued that entrepreneur’s expectation for personal rewards affects her performance in the business and her perceived inequity motivates her unto higher performance to eliminate such inequity. This can be demonstrated in the figure below.

Figure 15 : Equity Theory and the Role of Social Comparison

Personal rewards

Vis-à-vis

Personal inputs

are compared to

Others’ rewards

Vis–a-vis

Others’ inputs

with the result

Perceived Equity
The individual is satisfied and does not change behaviour

Perceived Inequity
The entrepreneur feels discomfort and acts to eliminate the inequity


Source: Schermerhorn (2004)

(g) Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory of motivation is developed by Skinner (1976) a psychologist. This is also called positive rein enforcement or behaviour modification. According to him, people can be motivated by proper design of their work environment and praise for their performance and that punishment for poor performance produces negative results that can motivate someone into doing something else e.g reseignation, withdrawal, entrepreneurship (Koontz and Weihrich, 2001). This theory emphasized more on the use of recognition, reward system and praise to improve both good and bad performance. Specific goals are set with workers’ participation and assistance, prompt and regular feedback of results is made available, and performance improvements are rewarded with recognition. When performance does not equal goals, ways are found to help people and praise them for the good things they do (Koontz and Weihrich, 2001). Relating this theory to women entrepreneurial motivation, proper enforcement from their family, environment, past experience, desire for financial gain and recognition can influence women’s attitude and behaviour towards starting entrepreneurial venture. Through empowerment programmes, seminars and workshops, women who are either dissatisfied with her work place or discrimination from promotion exercise can be reinenforced into entrepreneurial activity.

2.2.3 Feminist Theories

The motivation patterns of women entrepreneurs in SMEs sub-sector can be better understood by looking at the feminist theories. Feminist theory is focused around the concept of change; change in organizations, society, and the transformation of understanding. A core precept of the feminist perspective is that women entrepreneurs should not be generalized as they are a complicated and varied collection with multiple characteristics and motivation’s (Sarri and Trihopoulou, 2005). Feminist theory has often emphasized the impact of a male dominated patriarchy, assuming a socially constructed condition of gender relations (Martin, 1984; Hurley, 1999). Fisher, Reuber and Dyke (1993) viewed feminist theory from three perspectives; liberal, social and radical feminism. While quite distinct from each other, the various feminist theories share commonality in their emphasis on historical domination of women by men and male-oriented social policies (Flax, 1990; Ferguson, 1989). These theories explain the bases and the concepts that underline the emergence, behaviour and performance of women in the business world.

(a) Liberal Feminist Theory

Liberal feminism discuses how sex and gender are intimately related to socialization. It sees women as disadvantaged relative to men due to overt discrimination and to systemic factors that deprive them of vital resources required for business and economic decisions such as; finance, education and experience (Fisher, Reuber and Dyke, 1993). This theory works towards an egalitarian society which would uphold the right of each individual to fulfill their potential (Kutanis and Bayraktaroglu, 2003). Liberal feminism advocates that social and economic reform can only be possible if women are given the opportunities and status as their men counterpart to participate in economic developmental issues. The treatment of liberal theory is conventional in terms of established feminist theory, evoking the idea that men’s and women’s ways of knowing and coping with the world are essentially the same, so that the main task of feminist research and policies is to allow women’s estate to reach a state of similarity with men’s via the removal of overt or systemic forms of discrimination against women. Liberal feminism somehow supports the nineteenth-century feminists, and ‘new’ feminism, which argued that equality between male and female gender could not be achieved by legislation. This is based on the fact that men and women’s social needs differ in many ways due to their biological and psychological differences. In as much that liberal feminists are responsible for welfare, education and health reforms that have benefited the lives of millions of women, women are usually seen as inferior to men and should be subordinate to them.

(b) Social Feminist Theory

On the other hand, social feminist theory is of the suggestion that due to differences in early and ongoing socialization, women and men do differ inherently but this does not mean that women are inferior to men. Social feminism regards power relations as central to defining gender and concludes that socialization experienced throughout life creates inherent differences between genders. This theory views men and women as different individuals with different but equally effective potentials. The differences in men and women’s traits and values were seen as the reason behind women nature, size of businesses and their experiences in business. Social feminism is of the opinion that there are differences between male and female experiences through deliberate socialization methods from the earliest moments of life that result in fundamentally different ways of viewing the world.

This theory accepts that “the furthering of one’s capacity for autonomous agency is only possible within the confines of a solidarity community, which sustains one’s identity through mutual recognition (Tong, 1989). According to Kutanisi and Bayraktaroglu, 2003) social feminism is guided by maternal thinking that tries to protect the private life by preserving and protecting its ‘moral imperatives’. It seeks increases in privacy as opposed to liberal feminism. Social feminists argued that women’s ways of doing things and specifically female approaches to business ownership, need to be celebrated in their own right (Jaggar, 1983; Tong, 1989) . In social theory of feminism, sex and gender are seen with different views. Sex is a biological variable that comes through birth while gender is a socially constructed and contested characteristic, which is accepted through someone’s lifestyle and involvement in social issues. As a result, a human being with the female sex might adapt into a male gender accepting during life. The fact that a person has male or female sex organ does not make the person a contributor to economic and social matters or otherwise.

Sex is therefore not the major different between men and women perspectives to business and does not stand as a hindrance to someone’s level of success and contribution to economic development. However, women increased participation and success in the business world, could result in changes in certain demographic variables, such as higher degrees of residential mobility, new lifestyle and nutritional habits, increased duration of work time, possible higher rates of divorce cases or of never-married women, postponement of childbearing or lower fertility, overall increase of social stress, or higher emotional/psychological satisfaction increase in the level of education and well-being. Nigerian female entrepreneurs perceive themselves as domestic and conventional women, and they think that they can balance all the functions on their own.

(c) Radical Feminists Theory

Radical feminism explores the role of culture and tradition in giving greater worth to the male experience, and suggests that, if anything, the female experience warrants the greater emphasis (Scott, 1986). Radical feminism theorists perceived that women live under conditions of inequality in most systems of economic production regardless of whether capitalist, socialist or communist. Patriarchy, women’s oppression and domination by men, is the fundamental oppression and at the root of others. Patriarchy pervades public world of formal economic production processes but also private worlds of family, marriage, sexuality and biological reproduction introduced the phrase that personal is political and the political is personal. Seek to replace existing gender roles with androgyny, any resulting differences would then be human not gender differences. Some focus specifically on the male physical, psychological and social control of female sexuality as the basic cause of female subordination.

Others focused on the tyranny of reproductive biology from which women must be liberated, and thus they seek to eliminate biological sex as basis of social differentiation. Radical feminism was first to introduce the following as feminist issues: reproductive and contraceptive rights, abortion, reproductive technologies, sexuality expression and experience, fight against sexual and physical violence against women (rape, sexual harassment, incest, pornography and domestic violence). These three theories of feminism can further be put in Table 26 for proper understanding.
Table 26 Summary of the Feminist Theories

S/N		Liberal Feminism	Social Feminism	Radical Feminism
a)	All people are Equal	All people are created equal, women are essentially the same as men	Integrate issues of gender and class, i.e. unite concepts of patriarchy and capitalism, seeks to eliminate both class and gender oppression	Women live under conditions of inequality in most systems of economic production regardless of whether capitalist, socialist or communist
b)	Equal opportunity	Based upon principle of equality of opportunity and freedom	Women's oppression caused by their economic dependence on men’s income	Patriarchy, women’s oppression and domination by men, is the fundamental oppression and at the root of other.
c)	Sex is not important	Gender not determined by sex	Economic production systems of sexuality, childbearing and childrearing, care of other members of family and sick, and gender socialization must all be looked at	Marriage, sexuality and biological reproductive organ is personal and a determinant factor for social and political issues.
d)	Equal participation	Inequality stems from unequal participation in spheres outside of the family, primarily education and paid labour force	Investigate interface between women’s paid labour and domestic labour lives	Patriarchy pervades public world of formal economic production processes but also private worlds of family, marriage, sexuality and biological reproduction.
e)	Social Change and merit	Seek social changes that will create a meritocracy where social rank is based on merit and in which hierarchy and inequality are both inevitable and acceptable	Traditional sexuality script is emblematic of gender power relations	Introduced the phrase the personal is political and then also the political is personal
f)	Change is necessary	Education is means of change	Abolition of gender and class are goals where socialism will only occur with the liberation of women and women's liberation will only occur under socialism	Social change is necessary in both private and public worlds
g)	Structural system	Oppression of women is not a structural feature of capitalist economic system.	Working class women	Seek to replace existing gender roles with androgyny, any resulting differences would then be human not gender differences
h)	Lagel intervention	Look to state to bring about women's liberation through legislative measures – equality through law	Social feminism is of the opinion that there are differences between male and female experiences through deliberate socialization methods that need to be corrected.	Ffocus specifically on the male physical, psychological and social control of female sexuality as the basic cause of female subordination in public and private sector.
i)	Programs and practices for equality	Programs advocated include affirmative action, equal opportunity employment, employment equity, pay equity, parental leave, subsidized daycare professional and middle-class women	Sex is a biological variable that comes through birth while gender is a socially constructed and contested characteristic, which is accepted through someone’s lifestyle and involvement in social issues. Need for programs for enlightment.	Focus on the tyranny of reproductive biology from which women must be liberated, and thus they seek to eliminate biological sex as basis of social differentiation
j)	Role of agency	National Action Committee on the Status of Woman (N.A.C.): umbrella organization representing five hundred feminist-oriented women's groups.	This theory accepts that “the furthering of one’s capacity for autonomous agency is only possible within the confines of a solidarity community.	First to introduce the following as feminist issues: reproductive and contraceptive rights, abortion, reproductive technologies, sexuality expression and experience, sexual and physical violence against women (rape, sexual harassment, incest, pornography and domestic violence)

Sources:  www.Gender bibliography/org Retrieved Nov. (2007) ; Kutanis and Bayraktaroglu (2003)