Chapter 19 a revolution in Politics



Yüklə 448 b.
tarix27.12.2018
ölçüsü448 b.
#87668


Chapter 19


The War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

  • Habsburg Emperor Charles VI unable to produce male heir

  • spent his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction to ensure European powers accepted Maria Theresa (daughter) as heir

  • Pragmatic Sanction only lasted as long as Charles VI did

    • Frederick II invaded Austrian Silesia
    • France joined Prussia for chance to war with Austria
    • Maria Theresa made an alliance w/ Great Britain
      • (fearing French dominance in continental affairs)
  • War had become a world wide affair

    • Europe: Prussia took Silesia and France occupied Austrian Netherlands
    • Asia: France took Madras in India from British
    • North America: Britain captured Louisbourg on the St. Lawrence R.
  • By 1748, all parties were exhausted & agreed to stop

    • Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) promised to return all seized territories but Silesia to their rightful owners
    • Guaranteed another war between at least Prussia & Austria


The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

  • Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss of Silesia

    • working diplomatically through her foreign minister to separate Prussia from its ally, France
    • Continued to build the military to prepare for war
  • Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry had been a fact of political life in Europe since the 16th century

    • New concerns and rivalries outweighed old ones
      • Colonial empires (Britain v. France), holdings in Europe (Prussia v. Austria)
      • France allied with Austria
      • Russia joined the alliance because Prussia was a threat to interests in Europe
      • Britain allied with Prussia against the others
  • Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 led to another worldwide war

    • Once again had 3 major areas of conflict: Europe, India, & N. America


Battlefields of the Seven Years’ War



Conflict in Europe

  • Conflict in Europe

  • clash of two major alliances

    • France, Austria, & Russia
    • Great Britain & Prussia
  • Frederick the Great was able to defeat the combined forces of his enemies, but under attack from 3 directions gradually wore down

    • saved from total defeat when the Tsarina Elizabeth died & her nephew Peter III took control
    • Peter withdrew Russia from the conflict & all Prussian lands
    • turned a hopeless situation into a stalemate vs. France & Austria
    • European conflict ended by Peace of Hubertsburg (1763)
      • all seized territories were returned & Austria recognized Prussian control of Silesia
  • War in India

  • France returned Madras to Britain after the War of Succession

  • jockeying for power in Asia continued

  • Robert Clive led British forces to victory in India through persistence

  • by the Treaty of Paris 1763, France withdrew & left India to British



The French and Indian War

  • The French and Indian War

  • greatest conflict of Seven Years’ War was in North America

  • points of contention

    • Gulf of St. Lawrence
    • unsettled Ohio River valley
  • French moved south along the Mississippi & established forts from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River

    • French movement threatened British expansion
    • French found allies among the Native Americans
      • Indians saw French traders as less threatening than British settlers
    • initial French success
    • several British naval victories in 1759, gave Britain an advantage, since France’s success depended on naval reinforcement
  • British victories followed, went on to seize Quebec, Montreal, the Great Lakes region, & Ohio Valley

  • Settled by Treaty of Paris (1763)

    • France lost Canada & all holdings east of Mississippi R.
    • Spain ceded Florida to G.B., France gave Louis. Terr. to Spain


Beginning of the Revolutionary Era: The American Revolution

  • After Seven Years’ War, British looked for ways to obtain new revenues from 13 colonies to pay expenses for defending the colonists (ex. Stamp Act 1765)

  • Basic Policy Problem:

    • Britain envisioned single empire w/ Parliament as supreme authority
      • only Parliament could make policy for all people in empire
    • Colonists had their own representative assemblies
      • believed king & Parliament had no right to interfere w/ internal affairs or levy taxes w/o consent of the representative assembly
  • July 4, 1776 – Second Continental Congress approved Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence

    • affirmed the Enlightenment ideas of natural rights of “life, liberty, & the pursuit of happiness”
    • declared the colonies to be “free and independent states absolved of all allegiance to the British crown”


American War for Independence

  • 2nd Cont. Congress authorized a Continental Army under George Washington

  • Washington logical choice as commander in chief

    • military experience in French & Indian War
    • political experience in Virginia
    • a southerner brought balance to effort that had been focused in New England
  • War was not simple choice for colonists

    • 15-30% of pop. Loyalists – questioned the rebellion
    • 15-30% were Patriots – pushed rebellion
    • most colonists were apathetic at beginning of the war
  • Foreign support from enemies of Britain important from the beginning

    • France gave money & arms to rebels as revenge for previous British defeats
  • Cornwallis surrenders to Washington at Yorktown 1781

  • Treaty of Paris signed 1783

  • Americans now control the western territory to the Mississippi River



Forming a New Nation & Impact on Europe

  • Forming a New Nation & Impact on Europe

  • fear of concentrated power and concern for individual interests caused little enthusiasm for a united nation

  • 1781 – Articles of Confederation ratified

  • 1787 – delegates meet to revise A. of C., scrap it & devise new constitution

  • 1788 - United States Constitution approved

  • 1789 – Congress proposed 12 amendments to Constitution

    • will only be ratified if “certain liberties” can be guaranteed
    • first 10 approved became Bill of Rights
    • many of the rights were derived from the natural rights philosophies of the Enlightenment
  • Europeans saw the A.R. as embodiment of the Enlightenment theories

    • premise of the Enlightenment seemed confirmed
    • a new age & better world could be achieved
    • many Europeans received information about America from returning soldiers
  • In long run, A.R. much less important than the French Revolution

    • F.R. more complex, more violent, & far more radical
    • F.R. remains the political movement that inaugurated the modern political world


Background to the French Revolution

  • Social Structure

  • First Estate - clergy

    • 130,000 people
    • owned 10% of land
    • exempt from taille
    • High clergy stemmed from aristocratic families, priests came from lower families
  • Second Estate – aristocracy

    • 350,000 people
    • owned 25-35% of land
    • exempt from taille
    • still played a major in French politics
  • Third Estate – commoners

    • 26.5 million people, owned 30-40% of land
    • obligations to local landlords from feudal sys.
    • 2.3 million bourgeoisie (middle class), 25% land
    • over the 18th century, 6,500 bourgeoisie families became nobility, changing classes
    • Commoners, burdened by taxes, came to resent members of the 1st & 2nd Estates that didn’t pay taxes


Problems Facing the Monarchy

  • Long range causes of revolution rooted in frustration at monarchy’s inability to deal w/ new social realities & problems

  • Bad harvests in 1787 & 1788 and manufacturing depression led to rise in food costs & unemployment

  • Ideas of Philosophes

  • increased criticism of privileges, social & political institutions

  • did not advocate revolution, but as Revolution began many quoted Enlightenment writers like Rousseau

  • Failure to Make Reforms

  • Noble judges ran Parlementary courts, refusing to register royal edicts

  • “defended” liberty by blocking monarch’s power, but pushed their own interests

  • Financial Crisis

  • immediate cause of F.R. was a near financial collapse

  • Govt. borrowed so much money, by 1788 – ½ govt. spending was to loan interest

  • 1789: needed to raise taxes, called Estates General (had not met since 1614)

  • crown essentially admitted that it needed permission of estates to raise taxes



The French Revolution

  • From Estates-General to National Assembly

  • opened on May 5, 1789, had not met since 1614

    • 1614: each estate had 300 delegates & each estate had 1 vote
  • Split from beginning about how to vote (by estate or by individual)

    • Louis XVI agreed to double # of 3rd Estate delegates, but didn’t say how voting would take place
    • 1st & 2nd Estates wanted to vote by Estate, 3rd wanted individual votes
  • Ceremonial annoyances begin to perturb 3rd Estate

    • Can not sit in king’s presence
    • Can not wear hat in king’s presence
    • Only ½ of a set of French doors open for 3rd Estate delegates
  • Louis gave no indication to E.G. how to function or what to do

    • 3rd Estate refuses to begin unless all delegates meet in 1 hall & vote by head
    • Higher Estates blame “commoners” for “holding things up” (52 day stand-off)
  • June 17th, 1789 – 3rd Estate voted itself a National Assembly and draw up a constitution

    • On June 20, 3rd Estate arrives at meeting hall to find it locked, move down street into nearby indoor tennis courts & vow to keep meeting until they finish a constitution. (Tennis Court Oath)


The revolution essentially began w/ Tennis Court Oath

  • The revolution essentially began w/ Tennis Court Oath

    • mainly driven by 3rd Estate lawyers
    • 3rd Estate had no authority to form National Assembly
    • Louis prepared to use force to “end nonsense”
  • Revolts in urban & rural areas drew Louis XVI’s attention from the 3rd Estate during July and August

    • Common people used the name of the 3rd Estate to wage war on the rich
  • Paris: mob activity was so bad, the people of Paris the “Permanent Committee” to keep order

    • Needed weapons, so organized a popular force & took the royal armory
    • July 14th, attacked the Bastille (former state prison used as an armory)
      • only contained 7 prisoners when it was stormed
      • more symbolic than important, but saved the National Assembly
  • citizen’s militia became the National Guard, led by Marquis de Lafayette



The Great Fear

  • The Great Fear

  • late July – tight time for farmers, most out of food stores, not ready to harvest new crop

    • hail storm in July 1788 destroyed most of that year’s crop, famine imminent
  • Peasants fear that nobles will resort to burning crops to end revolution

    • Great Fear: 7/19 - 8/3/1789 radical peasants begin burning leases, forced lords to renounce dues & tithes and some resort to violence
  • Destruction of the Old Regime

  • 3rd Estate realizes that they own land & fear peasants coming after them

  • Aug. 4, 1789 – National Assembly renounces privileges (hunting rights, etc.) titles & feudal dues

  • Aug 26 – adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (p. 542)

    • reflected ideas of the philosophes & owed much to the American Declaration


Louis XVI remained inactive at Versailles

  • Louis XVI remained inactive at Versailles

    • He did refuse to support the abolition of feudal taxes & the declaration of rights
  • Oct. 5, 1789 – mob of Parisian women (and the Nat’l Guard) march on Versailles demanding bread & the king’s return to Paris

    • Louis complies on Oct. 6, bringing flour from palace stores in good will
    • He then accepted the N.A.’s decrees
    • King essentially prisoner in Paris
  • 1791 – Nat’l Assembly had new constitution, Legislative Assembly (L.A.) & a limited monarchy

    • 1789 – Nat’l Assembly abolished all local & provincial divisions & divided France into 83 departments (roughly equal in size & pop.)
    • each department divided into districts & communes and run by elected officials (most offices went to bourgeoisie, not nobles)
  • Nat’l Assembly faced opposition from within (Jacobins p.544 & sec B 5)

  • Aug 1791 – Austria & Prussia invite European monarchs to take action to put the king of France back on the throne

    • European monarchs too suspicious of each other to act
    • Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria (Aug. 1792) & fared poorly
    • radicals in Paris attacked royal palace & L.A. call for a nat’l convention


Radical Revolution

  • San-culottes, led by George Danton, sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted popular will (September Massacres)

    • thousands of presumed traitors arrested & executed
      • ordinary tradesmen & artisans solved overcrowding in prisons
  • Nat’l Convention met in September 1792

    • called to draft new constitution, also served as ruling body of France
    • dominated by lawyers & professionals, also included artisans
    • 2/3 of deputies under 45 yrs.
    • most had political experience as result of F.R.
  • First step was to abolish monarchy & establish a republic (9/21/1792)

  • Factions formed over fate of king, both were from the Jacobins

    • Girondists: mod. Republicans, wanted to keep king alive
    • Mountain: rad. Republicans, wanted the king executed
  • The Mountain won out. Jan 21, 1793 – Louis XVI was beheaded

    • Marie Antoinette followed, Louis XVII died in prison
    • created new enemies at home & abroad while strengthening old enemies


A Nation in Arms

  • 1793 – N.C. created the Committee of Public Safety (dominated by Danton & later by Maximilien Robespierre)

  • 8/23/1793 – Committee of Public Safety mobilized the entire country to meet foreign crisis & save Republic from foreign enemies

  • In less than a year, French army was 650,000 strong

    • 9/1794: 1,169,000 soldiers
    • The Republic’s army – “a nation in arms”- was the largest ever seen in European history
    • Pushed the anti-French forces across the Rhine & captured Aust. Netherlands
  • Domestic threats as well, Committee of Public Safety had to institute the “Reign of Terror”



Robespierre & the Reign of Terror

  • Reign of Terror lasted from July 1793 – July 1794

    • ~50,000 enemies of the revolution killed
    • No social class distinction in the Terror
    • Of killed - nobles 8%, middle class 25%, clergy 6%, peasants 60%
  • Robespierre’s desire was to build a “Republic of Virtue”

    • when foreign & domestic threats ended, bloodshed would subside
    • Robespierre – believer of Rousseau & his idea of “general will”
    • believed France could only become a republic of virtue through terror
  • as more people died, his followers wondered if things were out of hand

    • not even Robespierre’s fellow leaders felt safe
      • Danton & other politicians were executed in early 1794 for trying to stop Terror
    • members of the NC arranged for Robespierre’s arrest on Jul 27, 1794
      • the next day he & his followers executed by guillotine
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man did not give women equal citizenship, but they gained rights – divorce easier, could inherit prop.



Reaction and the Directory

  • so called “Thermidorian Reaction” occurred

  • moved away from excess of NC

  • 1795 - moderates drafted another Constitution

    • 3rd constitution since 1789
  • Constitution of 1795

    • set up 5 man Directory & 2 house legislature of elected officials
    • Jacobin club closed
    • freedom of worship reestablished
    • laissez-faire economic policies adopted
  • the Directory relied on military support to maintain power

  • led to a coup d’etat allowing general Napoleon Bonaparte to seize power



The Age of Napoleon

  • Napoleon (1769-1821)

  • dominated French & European history from 1799-1815

  • called himself a “Son of the Revolution”

    • the F.R. gave him the opportunity to rise through the military ranks
    • also said “I am the Revolution”, reminded the people that they owed him for retaining everything beneficial from the F.R.
  • Oct. 1795 – saved the N.C. from a mob with “a whiff of smoke & a hand-full of grapeshot”, promoted to major general.

  • led French victories in Italy 1797, lost to British & abandoned army to return to France in 1799 (welcomed as a conquering hero)

  • took part in coup d’etat that led to his virtual dictatorship of France

  • With the coup of 1799, new Republic w/ new constituion

    • Bicameral legislature w/ indirectly elected officials to reduce role of elections


Executive power in hands of 3 consuls (real power belonged to 1st consul)

  • Executive power in hands of 3 consuls (real power belonged to 1st consul)

    • Napoleon served as First Consulate until 1804
  • Napoleon controlled the executive branch, influenced the legislative, controlled the army & conducted all foreign affairs

  • 1802 – named “Consul for Life”…

    • Who does it wound like he’s emulating?
  • returned France to monarchy in 1804, crowning himself Emperor Napoleon I

  • brought stability & permanence to France not possible w/ consulate

  • revolution began to limit authority of the king, ended up with a far more autocratic system, but the people did not object

  • at each step in his rise to power, he held a plebiscite (a yes or no vote on an issue)

  • to understand why the people supported him, you have to understand his policies



The Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon I

  • Concordat w/ the Church

    • Napoleon made peace w/ Cath. Church in 1801
    • gave French gov’t authority to appoint French clergy & pay salaries
    • Church had right to confirm/refuse appointments, lost land from FR
  • Code Napoleon

    • longest lasting of his policies, applied to all of France
    • equality of citizens (men), religious toleration, abolition of serfdom
    • applied the merit system (got jobs/promotions based on ability/service)
    • Women actually lost rights gained in revolution
  • Centralization of Administration

    • taxation more systematic & efficient
    • no exemptions due to birth or social status
    • state censorship of newspapers & books
  • Other Reforms

    • Offered emigres full pardons to return to France
    • founded system of public education, regulated economy to control prices, encourage new industry & build roads and canals
    • Peasants allowed to keep land gained in FR


Napoleon’s Empire & Europe’s Responses

  • Empire had 3 parts: France, dependant states, Allied states

  • By 1807, defeated continental members of European coalition

    • sold Louisiana Territory to the US in 1803 to finance his war efforts
    • brought Code Napoleon to all conquered land, but territories had to provide soldiers for his army, taxes to finance it, & raw materials
    • opposition to Napoleonic rule smashed, those who first welcomed him as a liberator grew to hate him
  • his Grand Empire failed due to GB and the survival of nationalism

    • 1805 – French navy defeated by GB at Battle of Trafalgar (coast of Spain)
  • Napoleon started Continental System - blocked British goods from entering French controlled territory to hurt economy

  • policy failed, Britain started own blockade & found new markets

    • British blockades & attacks on American ships led to War of 1812
    • Russia openly violated Napoleon’s Continental Sys.
  • June 1812 – Napoleon marched the Grand Army east (600,000 troops)

  • Reached Moscow in September, winter setting in

    • Moscow was in ruin, burnt to ground; French tried to salvage any supplies
    • October 1812 – began 1,000 mi. journey home; ambush, starvation & disease caused 540,000 casualties




The End of Napoleon

  • Failure of Russian march, led to war of liberation throughout Europe (1813-1814)

  • April 1814 – Allied forces capture Paris, Napoleon abdicates & exiled to island of Elba (of coast west of Italy, south of France)

  • Bourbon monarchy of Louis XVIII (Louis XVI brother) restored

  • Napoleon escaped Elba in March 1815, returned to Paris as a hero

    • Began time known as The Hundred Days
  • Waterloo – Napoleon finally defeated in June 1815 by a coalition force led by British Duke of Wellington & Prussian general Gebhard von Blucher

  • Napoleon captured & exiled to St. Helena Island – 1000 mi. of Atlantic coast of Africa

    • lived out last 6 years of life, still rumored that he was poisoned


Yüklə 448 b.

Dostları ilə paylaş:




Verilənlər bazası müəlliflik hüququ ilə müdafiə olunur ©muhaz.org 2024
rəhbərliyinə müraciət

gir | qeydiyyatdan keç
    Ana səhifə


yükləyin