Empowering destitute people towards transforming communities

4.2Emotional problems

4.2.1Negative childhood experiences or dysfunctional family experiences

Quite a number of studies have documented strong associations of negative childhood experiences and dysfunctional family experiences with destitution (Bassuk et al., 1997; Caton et al., 1994; Herman et al., 1997; Koegel, Melamid and Burnam, 1995; Mangine, Royse and Wiehe, 1990; Susser, Struening and Conover, 1987; Susser et al., 1991; Weitzman, Knickman and Shinn, 1992; Wood et al., 1990). The most common childhood experiences associated with a higher risk of experiencing destitution follow: histories of foster care and other out-of-home placement, physical and sexual abuse (which often precede out-of-home placement), parental substance abuse, and residential instability and destitution together with one's family as a child. These experiences are much more common among people who have been destitute as adults than among people who have not.

4.2.2Abuse and domestic violence

A number of studies have found that violence in the lives of destitute people comprises a major factor for understanding critical pathways from childhood and adulthood into destituteness (Bassuk, Melnick and Browne, 1998; Kipke et al., 1997; Link et al., 1995; North, Smith and Spitznagel, 1994; Toro et al., 1995). Such violence experienced during childhood and adolescence often continues once individuals become destitute as a result of their lack of protection and personal security. These experiences lead to both acute and chronic health conditions (Gelberg, Linn and Mayer-Oakes, 1990: 1221) and potentially affect trust-building and subsequent adherence to preventive and ongoing interventions (Goodman et al., 1997: 686).
It would seem that mostly women and children suffer because of domestic violence. Many women in SA suffer from abusive relationships, often resulting in these people fleeing into shelters or to the street, thus becoming destitute. Battered women who live in poverty are often forced to choose between abusive relationships and destitution. It is estimated that one in every four women in SA suffers from abuse in their relationships (SACLA Conference 2003).
According to findings by the Institute for Women’s Policy Research (1997:57), a sizable portion of the welfare population experiences domestic violence at any given time; thus, without significant support, many welfare recipients are at risk of destitution or continued violence. In the absence of cash assistance, women who experience domestic violence may be at increased risk of destitution or compelled to live with a former or current abuser in order to prevent destitution.
The actual statistics highlight the severity of this problem in a South African context. One study surveying 1 306 women in three South African provinces found that 27% of women in the Eastern Cape, 28% of women in Mpumalanga and 19% of women in the Northern Province had been physically abused in their lifetimes by a current or ex-partner. The same study investigated the prevalence of emotional and financial abuse experienced by women in the year prior to the study and found that 51% of women in the Eastern Cape, 50% in Mpumalanga and 40% in Northern Province were subjected to these types of abuse (Jewkes et al., 1999).
Another study, undertaken with a sample of 168 women drawn from 15 rural communities in the Southern Cape, estimated that on average 80% of rural women are victims of domestic violence. Interviews conducted with 1 394 men working for three Cape Town municipalities found that approximately 44% of the men were willing to admit that they abused their female partners (Abrahams et al., 1999). National figures for intimate femicide (the killing by men of their intimate female partners) suggest that this most lethal form of domestic violence is prevalent in South Africa. In 1999 8.8 per 100 000 of the female population aged 14 years and older died at the hands of their partners – the highest rate ever reported in research anywhere in the world (Mathews et al., 2004⁶). At present the true extent of sexual violence in South Africa is unknown. StatsSA established that one in two rape survivors reported being raped to the police (Hirschowitz, Worku and Orkin, 2000), while the Medical Research Council (MRC) found that one in nine women reported being raped (Jewkes and Abrahams, 2002). Both studies clearly find rape to be under-reported although their findings differ as to the extent of such under-reporting. On the basis of the above studies it can be extrapolated that the 52 733 rapes reported by the SAPS in their data released for 2003/04 are more accurately calculated as falling somewhere between the region of 104 000 and 470 000 actual rapes having taken place.

4.2.3Trauma

According to Jaffe, Segal & Dumke (2005:2) recent research has revealed that emotional trauma can result from such common occurrences as a motor vehicle accident, the breakup of a significant relationship, a humiliating or deeply disappointing experience, the discovery of a life-threatening illness or disabling condition, or other similar situations. In the lives of the destitute trauma is often brought about by abuse, life on the streets, family situations; even abuse by the systems of the day, accidents, crime, divorce and the death of people close to a person.
Trauma exhibits three defining characteristics, namely (1) it was unexpected; (2) the person was unprepared; (3) there was nothing the person could do to prevent it from happening. These “unexpected” shocks can seriously “overload” an individual’s ability to cope, followed by a range of possible effects, some more long term than others.

Traumatizing events can take a serious emotional toll on those involved, even if the event did not cause physical damage. “Even when unrecognized, emotional trauma can create lasting difficulties and effects in an individual's life” (Jaffe, Segal & Dumke, 2005:3). These can range from substance abuse, compulsive behaviour patterns, self-destructive and impulsive behaviour, uncontrollable reactive thoughts, an inability to make healthy professional or lifestyle choices, dissociative symptoms ("splitting off" parts of the self), feelings of ineffectiveness, shame, despair, hopelessness, feeling permanently damaged, losing previously sustained beliefs (2005:4). Trauma can also include the inability to maintain close relationships or choose appropriate friends and mates, hostility, arguments with family members, employers or co-workers, social withdrawal and feelings of constantly being threatened (2005:5). All of these effects can contribute to people becoming destitute.

Emotional trauma, especially continued and/ or consecutive emotional trauma, may seriously affect a person’s coping abilities or mental state, thereby contributing to a slide into poverty, or even destitution itself. These kinds of trauma can precipitate poor decision-making, a lack of coping ability and a loss of meaning: all contributing to destitution.

4.2.4Overwhelming negative feelings

These are closely linked to trauma and its associated feelings. Overwhelming negative feelings are also often brought about by trauma, including the trauma of being destitute or being “down and out”. According to Kraybill (2003:8) these feelings could include (1) anxiety, fear, (2) shame, guilt, (3) frustration, anger, (4) depression, psychosis, (5) low energy and motivation, (5) lack of self-efficacy, (6) lack of meaning, identity, belonging, and (7) hopelessness [as was already mentioned]. These feelings promote destitution by putting people in a state of mind where they cannot, or do not want to, fight life and its problems anymore. These feelings and self-perceptions “disable” destitute people from viewing themselves as capable of solving their own problems, often leading to greater despondency and despair.

Wink (1992:101) adds that “Poor people feel nonexistent, valueless, humiliated”. These feelings often lead to mistrust; therefore Kraybill (2003:16) focuses on the building of trust as an important issue when doing missions with the destitute.

It would also seem that these overwhelming feelings are often precipitators towards mental illness, or to a slide into poverty and eventual destitution.

4.2.5Lack of belonging/ connectedness

Referring back to Baum and Burnes (1993), and Friedman (1992), among others, it is clear that the destitute are marginalized and disassociated, which also means that they are often not part of communities that might help them to become non-destitute, or assist them not to become destitute in the first place. In this sense “community” can signify (in the narrow sense) family, or (in the broader sense) a group of people living together and helping one another.
It would seem that people functioning within a healthy community have much less of a chance to become destitute. Firstly, because they are taken care of much better in a community than when isolated and cut of from the resources that a community provides. Secondly, because being part of a good community contributes to perceiving meaning in life (Seltzer & Miller, 1993:89).
Biblically the connectedness to community is important – in this sense it must be said that SHALOM, as the aim of helping the destitute, is a community word. True SHALOM can only be attained in community (a point discussed in the following Chapter).

4.2.6Continued rejection by people and systems (leading to distrust and self-ostracization)

Kraybill (2003:20) describes this phenomenon as a “revolving slate”. Simply put, this means that people who have been rejected often, become more and more careful about trusting others. They will keep their distance, often not even allowing those who really want to help to come close. They will also tend to reject people who try to build relationships with them before they can (potentially) be rejected by that person. This makes helping the destitute extremely difficult, because they have often experienced rejection, both from other people, and from society as a whole.
Kraybill (2003: 3) states that the first actions in the helping process must always centre on “building trust” and “instilling hope”, because most destitute people have experienced at least a degree of rejection, and are therefore distrustful of helpers.