Eu risk assessment

Atmosphere

Ambient and natural background concentrations
Ambient and natural background lead concentrations in air for different EU countries are summarised.
Estimation of pre-industrial levels of Pb in air from natural origins (volcanic emissions, crustal weathering, radon decay and sea-spray releases) are in the range of 0.01 and 0.1 µg/m³ (US NRC, 1976). The lowest level reported since 1975 is 0.076 ng/m³ measured at the South Pole (US EPA, 1986).
Atmospheric lead levels in urban areas in various OECD countries in the 1970s ranged from 0.5 to 10 µg/m³ in densely trafficked inner cities (Nriagu, 1978). However, restrictions on lead levels in gasoline imposed since that time in many countries have markedly decreased automotive emissions of lead into the atmosphere. The air lead levels presently found in European and North-American cities are in the range of 0.2-0.8 µg/m³ and in rural areas usually in the range of 0.05-0.3 µg/m³. Despite declines in general (regional) atmospheric concentrations of lead in some countries, areas of higher concentrations still exist due to the presence of local sources.
The World Health Organisation set an air quality guideline for lead of between 0.5 and 1.0 µg/m³ as an annual average (WHO, 1997), although a WHO working group recently recommended revising the guideline to 0.5 µg/m³. The EU lead in air standard is currently 0.5 µg/m³.
Most of the compiled data were retrieved from the database Airbase, the European air quality information system, which contains a selection of stations and a number of components with additional meta information on air quality. Airbase builds on two preceding EU databases APIS (Air Pollution System providing air quality data) and GIRAFE (meta information on air quality networks and stations) and can be viewed on http://etc-acc.eionet.eu.int/databases.

This database describes air concentrations of selected pollutants at different types of station:

4. 
   Traffic: station used for monitoring of traffic induced air pollution,
   
5. 
   Industrial: station used for monitoring industrial air pollution,
   
6. 
   Background: station used for monitoring background air pollution levels.
   

These stations can be located both inside as well as outside cities. The stations can be located in one of the following zone types:

• 
  Urban: station is located in the city,
  
• 
  Suburban: station is located on the outskirts of a city, or in small residential areas outside the main city,
  
• 
  Rural: station is located outside the city.
  

United Kingdom
The available ambient and natural background Pb concentrations in air in the United Kingdom are summarised in Table 3.1.9-20.
Table 3.1.9 78 Measured Pb concentrations (average and 95P) in rural, suburban and urban zones in the United Kingdom (Airbase, 2003)

Location	Type of station	Type of zone	conc. (µg/m³)		Year
			avg	95P
Banchory	background	rural	0.002	/	2000
Chilton	background	rural	0.011	/	2000
Cottered	traffic	rural	0.009	/	2000
East ruston	background	rural	0.010	/	2000
Eskdalemuir lead	traffic	rural	0.003	/	2000
High muffles lead	background	rural	0.008	/	2000
Styrrup	background	rural	0.023	/	2000
Trebanos	background	rural	0.012	/	2000
Wraymires	background	rural	0.045	/	2000
Cardiff, cardiff	traffic	urban	0.029	/	2000
Glasgow, glasgow	background	urban	0.017	/	2000
Glasgow, motherwell	background	urban	0.009	/	2000
Leeds, leeds market buildings	background	urban	0.027	/	2000
London, brent park	traffic	urban	0.024	/	2000
London, cromwell road	traffic	urban	0.032	/	2000
Manchester	traffic	urban	0.022	/	2000
Newcastle upon tyne, elswick 1	industrial	urban	0.023	/	2000
Newcastle upon tyne, elswick 2	industrial	urban	0.046	/	2000
Newcastle upon tyne, elswick 6	industrial	urban	0.110	/	2000
Newcastle upon tyne, newcastle	traffic	urban	0.008	/	2000
Walsall, brookside 1	industrial	suburban	0.034	/	2000
Walsall, brookside 2	industrial	suburban	0.524	/	2000
Walsall, imi 1	industrial	suburban	0.055	/	2000
Walsall, imi 2	industrial	suburban	0.075	/	2000
Walsall, imi 5	industrial	suburban	0.062	/	2000

/: no data available

From the database it seems that low Pb air concentrations (year 2000), between 0.002 and 0.045 µg Pb/m³, are observed in stations used for monitoring background air pollution levels located both in rural and urban areas. Similar Pb air concentrations were found in stations used for monitoring traffic induced air pollution, i.e. between 0.003 and 0.032 µg Pb/m³. The highest Pb concentrations were reported from stations used for monitoring industrial air pollution, i.e. between 0.023 and 0.524 µg Pb/m³.

For stations intended to measure background concentrations in rural areas, a mean annual average concentration of 0.019 µg Pb/m³ is calculated.

In the UK regulations were applied in 1985 covering the levels of lead allowed in petrol leading to a reduction of the average yearly concentration from 1976/77 to 1992/93 with measurements of 0.82 and 0.11 µg Pb/m³ respectively. Ambient levels of lead in air peaked in the early to mid 1980s in Britain. The reduction of Pb concentration in the air of a typical urban station (central London) was correlated with the percentage of sales of unleaded petrol leading to a drastic decrease in ambient Pb air concentration between 1982 and 1993, i.e. >0.6 and <0.1 µg Pb/m³ respectively (EC, 1997).

This trend was confirmed for other urban stations. Annual average concentrations of airborne lead at the kerbside of a busy London road were around 1,400 ng Pb/m³, and in 1985 were still higher in Manchester (2.0 µg Pb/m³). General urban levels of lead were in the range of 0.2 and 1.0 µg Pb/m³. Since then, lead levels in urban areas have significantly declined, as the use of leaded petrol has been phased out. In the UK in 1995-96, the urban and kerbside road levels measured were not above 0.2 µg/m³ (Thornton et al., 2001).
The EU air standard for Pb (i.e. 0.5 µg Pb/m³) seemed to be exceeded only at one site, i.e. the industrial site situated in Walsall. Such high air concentrations near industrial sites in the UK were confirmed by several authors, i.e. concentrations of lead in ambient air near smelters have been reported to average 0.4-0.8 µg/m³ (Carroll, 1987) and 2.2-6.0 µg/m³ (Reed, 1987).

Denmark
The available ambient and background Pb concentrations in air in Denmark are summarised in Table 3.1.9-21.

Table 3.1.9 79 Measured Pb concentrations (P50 and P95) in rural, suburban and urban zones in Denmark (Airbase, 2003).

Location	Type of station	Type of zone	conc. (µg/m³)		Year
			50P	95P
Keldsnor	background	rural	0.006	0.027	1999
Lille valby	background	rural	0.005	0.021	2000
Odense	traffic	urban	0.010	0.027	2000
Tange	background	rural	0.004	0.018	1999
Aalborg	traffic	urban	0.010	0.028	1999
Copenhagen,	traffic	urban	0.014	0.040	2000
Odense	traffic	urban	0.008	0.024	1999

From the database it seems that very low Pb air concentrations (year 1999-2000), between 0.004 and 0.006 µg Pb/m³ (as 50P annual concentrations; between 0.018 and 0.027 µg Pb/m³ as P95), are observed in stations used for monitoring background air pollution levels located both in rural areas. Somewhat higher Pb air concentrations were found in stations used for monitoring traffic induced air pollution, i.e. between 0.01 and 0.014 µg Pb/m³ as P50 (between 0.024 and 0.04 µg Pb/m³ as 95P). No Pb concentrations were reported from stations located in industrial zones.

For stations intended to measure background concentrations in rural areas, a mean annual average concentration of 0.005 µg Pb/m³ is calculated.

These low Pb concentrations reached in urban areas has been achieved through a progressive reduction of the lead content in the petrol. At present almost all petrol sold in Denmark is lead free and lead pollution has been reduced since 1982 (EC, 1997). Average concentration of Pb in the urban area of Aalborg exceeded 1 µg/m³ in 1982 and declined rapidly to reach a mean atmospheric concentration of  0.5 µg/m³ in 1986, <0.1 µg/m³ in 1994 (EEA, 1996) and 0.01 µg Pb/m³ in 1999 (Airbase, 2003).

Spain
The available ambient and background Pb concentrations in air in Spain are summarised in Table 3.1.9-22.
Table 3.1.9 80 Measured Pb concentrations (50P and 95P) in rural, suburban and urban zones in Spain (Airbase, 2003).

Location	Type of station	Type of zone	conc. (µg/m³)		Year
			50P	95P
Alcoy/alcoi, oliver	traffic	suburban	0.050	0.090	1999
Alcoy/alcoi, rosaleda	traffic	urban	0.020	0.040	1999
Alicante/alacant, estación renfe	traffic	urban	0.070	0.120	1999
Alicante/alacant, san antoni	traffic	suburban	0.040	0.080	1999
Barcelona, i2-poble nou	traffic	urban	0.120	0.330	1999
Barcelona, ie-sagrera	traffic	urban	0.060	0.170	1999
Barcelona, ij-gracia-sant gervasi	traffic	urban	0.220	0.340	1999
Burjassot, goya	background	urban	0.060	0.140	1999
Gandia, estación ferrocarril	background	urban	/	0.110	1999
Gijón, avenida de castilla	traffic	suburban	0.130	0.420	1999
Hospitalet de llobregat (l´), i3-l'hospitalet	traffic	urban	0.140	0.430	1999
Montcada i reixac, i6-montcada	traffic	suburban	0.140	0.380	1999
Paterna	traffic	urban	0.090	0.190	1999
Prat de llobregat (el), ib-el prat	industrial	urban	0.190	0.500	1999
Quart de poblet, quart	industrial	suburban	0.100	0.400	1999
Sabadell, ad-sabadell	traffic	urban	0.110	0.230	1999
Sagunto/sagunt, casco antiguo	traffic	suburban	0.020	0.120	1999
Sant celoni, ac-sant celoni	industrial	suburban	0.060	0.170	1999
Sant vicenç dels horts, i8-sant vicenç	industrial	suburban	0.160	0.340	1999
Tarragona, a5-Tarragona (st. Salvador)	traffic	urban	0.050	0.100	1999
Tarragona, a6-Tarragona (nucli urba)	traffic	urban	0.080	0.160	1999
Valencia, nuevo centro	traffic	urban	0.070	0.250	1999
Valencia, pista de silla	traffic	urban	0.060	0.230	1999
Valencia, plaza de españa	traffic	urban	0.070	0.250	1999

/: no data available
From the database it seems that the Pb air concentrations (year 1999) found in stations used for monitoring traffic induced air pollution in suburban and urban zones varied between 0.020 and 0.220 µg Pb/m³ (as 50P annual concentrations; between 0.040 and 0.340 µg Pb/m³ as 95P). The highest Pb concentrations in urban zones were observed in the city of Barcelona.
Similar Pb air concentrations are observed in stations used for monitoring industrial air pollution, i.e. between 0.060 and 0.190 µg Pb/m³ as 50P (between 0.17 and 0.5 µg Pb/m³ as 95P). Only one background urban concentration is reported, i.e. 0.060 µg Pb/m³.

Regarding concentrations measured in urban stations, annual averages in the mid 1990 can be considered in the order of 0.5 µg Pb/m³ or less. As an example, the trend for annual average concentrations in the city of Valencia (typical urban site with a population of around 800,000 inhabitants) declined from > 3.0 µg Pb/m³ in 1982/83 to 0.5 µg Pb/m³ in 1994. However, some stations still record occasional daily maxima in the order of 1.0 µg Pb/m³ (EC, 1997).

Stations located in industrial areas record values superior to previous ones. In 1990, some annual averages were between 3.0 and 4.0 µg Pb/m³. As an example of concentrations reported in 1994/95, annual averages were around 0.5 and 0.6 µg Pb/m³ in a typical industrial station in Breda (Barcelona). However, occasional daily maxima of > 5.0 µg Pb/m³ were recored in 1994, > 3.0 µg Pb/m³ in 1995 (EC, 1997).
Ireland
The available ambient and background Pb concentrations in air in Ireland are summarised in Table 3.1.9-23.