Europeanization of turkish subnational administrations

et al,. 2003).

144^ As examples for these events, see inter alia, EURADA Agorada 2012+ meeting in Samsun, (http://www.eurada.org/index.php?option=com_events&task=view_detail&agid=265&jevtype=icaldb&Itemid=154&lang=en); Eurocities in Cities in Beyoğlu (Istanbul) meeting (http://www.eurocities.eu/eurocities/events/EUROCITIES-in-the-Cities-in-Beyoglu-Istanbul-16-17-04-2012-) ; and CPMR More 4 More General Assembly of the BBSC in Sinop (http://news.cpmr.org/tag/sinop/).

145^ Germany has the largest representation, with an average of 9.3 members of staff. Spain also scores highly with 8.8 representations; Austria, Denmark, and Finland on the other hand have an average of 3 to 4 employees. (Huysseunne and Jans, 2008).

146^ For the issue of internet and its effective usage in EU governance, see Christou & Simpson (2006 and 2011).

147^ This category includes consortia of regional and local authorities and international networks. It always involves public authorities, nonetheless.

148^ For example, before the 2004 enlargement, the Network of Interest Representation Offices from Candidate Countries (NIROC) was composed of 24 organizations (from 6 countries); of these, 8 were Turkish.

149^ For a recent study on the cultural mosaic of the southeast region in Turkey, see Samur 2010.

150^ The tribes, usually referred to as ashiret in Turkey, are ‘fluid, mutable, territorially oriented and at least quasi-kinship groups’ that range in size between tribal confederacies of thousands of members to small units of several dozen individuals (Cornell, 2001:35).

151^ In terms of GDP per capita (2011), while the richest regions of Turkey, (Kocaeli sub-division) have 11.740$, this number is as low as 2100 $ in the poorest regions of Turkey, which are encompassing largely Kurdish dominated cities (Source TUIK 2011).

152^ The name of the so-called Kurdish party has changed its name several times because it has been banned from the political life by the decisions of Constitutional Court. These names, respectively, include People’s Democracy Party (HADEP), Democratic People’s Party (DEHAP), Democratic Society Party (DTP), and Peace and Democracy Party (BDP).

153^ The results of the last general election for the BDP party in 2011 are as follows: Hakkari (79.88%); Şırnak (72.5%); Diyarbakır (61.17%); Mardin (60.98%); Batman (51.7%); Van (48.48%) and Muş (44.4%). The data is derived from Turkey Supreme Committee of Elections (www.ysk.gov.tr).

154^ In the political parties Law of the 1961 and 1982 Constitutions, advocating for federalism, regional autonomy or different languages and cultures were considered as a means to shut political parties down (Uygun, 2012:6). For example, the legal documents include Article 14 of the 1982 Constitution, and Article 96 of the law on political parties. It is one of the reasons that many parties established by Kurds were prohibited and they have established after each time they were closed.

155^ Another important problem for these parties is that many mainstream parties as well as the majority of the public have ascertained that there is a close relation between these parties and a Kurdish terrorist organization (PKK). This situation has always produced enormous suspicion about their political agenda.

156^ For the entire speech of Mesut Yılmaz on Diyarbakir’s importance for Turkey’s Candidacy, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=yilmaz-road-to-eu-passes-through-diyarbakir-1999-12-17 (accessed on 11 August 2013).

157^ It is important to note here that the Turkish delegation to the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities consists of 12 permanent members and 12 substitutes depending on political orientations and geographical coverage. Two members (one permanent and one substitute), Leyla Güven and Şeyhmus Bayhan, from the BDP cannot operate because they are in detention. In fact, the interview in the Diyarbakir Provincial Assembly was supposed to be conducted with Şeyhmus Bayhan (the President). Because of his situation, the interview was conducted with the vice-President.

158^ Aytaç Durak is accused of engaging in collusion over awarding tenders from within the Adana municipality. Aziz Kocaoğlu currently stands trial on accusations of corruption and engagement in the crimes of preparing fabricated documents, causing financial loss to the state and rigging tenders. A prosecutor demands up to 397 years in prison for the mayor. (source: http://www.todayszaman.com/news-314136-reduced-sentences-for-tender-rigging-will-promote-the-crime-critics-warn.html) (Accessed on 26^th April 2013).

159^ During the interviews, it was asked to representatives from the EU institutions (the Commission, the CoR and the EU Parliament) to provide me any data regarding the visits of Turkish SNAs to their respective organization. However, each informant said that there is no such data at hand.

160^ By having 43 members and representing 6.5 million people under member municipalities, the primary mission of SODEM is to maintain dialogue between its members and their European counterparts. Thus, it aims to enhance the capacity of the member municipalities and contribute to Turkey’s accession process to the EU.

161^ Izmir is usually considered in Turkish political life as the bastion of CHP and secularism. Being the third biggest city after Istanbul and Ankara, mainstream political parties throughout Turkish history have always had their interests in winning the local election in Izmir. The importance of the city for the mainstream parties has usually created sources of frictions if the national government and local administrations of Izmir are poles apart.

162^ For instance, in analysing the empowerment of French and Italian regions in line with the EU’s regional policy, Smyrl (1997) also found that in regions where the pre-existing territorial network exists, an SNA takes a European dimension and makes it possible for subnational actors to extract full benefit from the resources in Brussels.

163^ See the Izmir International Fair official website, www.izfas.com.tr

164^ For further details about Izmir’s candidacy for EXPO 2020 see www.expoizmir.org.tr

165^ It was established in Izmir in 1992 by the provincial governors, municipalities, chambers, industrialists and business organisations.

166^ EGEV (1993) ‘EBKA Presentation Document’, Aegean Regional Development Foundation, Izmir.

167^ This project was aimed to raise awareness about Turkish-EU relations, EU Acquis and benefitting from the EU Community Programs. Within the scope of the project, 1124 people attended a two-day long seminar program in the region and were trained in EU matters. For more information on this project see www.egev.org.tr

168^ Through the initiatives of the Amasya Governor in 1996, it was established as an issue network to deal with environmental problems in the region including four cities: Samsun, Tokat, Amasya and Çorum. For further information regarding the Yeşilırmak Project see its official website, www.yesilirmak.org.tr

169^ The project team consists of 1 Project Coordinator, 4 Project Directors, 1 Information Technology Specialist, 1 Accountant, 1 GIS (Geographical Information System) Technician, and 1 Maps Specialist (gathered from the official website of Yeşilırmak River Basin Development).

170^ Information gathered from Samsun Regional Development Council, www.sabek.com.tr

171^ Information gathered from Samsun City Development Plan, www.sabek.org.tr

172^ The data derived from Central Finance and Contracts Unit in August 2013, (www.cfcu.gov.tr).

173^For more information about these two meetings see the following links http://www.oka.org.tr/eng/haber-detay.asp?NewsId=114 (Mirroring EU and Turkish RDAs in 2010) and http://www.oka.org.tr/eng/haber-Detay.asp?NewsId=117 (Agorada 2012+ Adoption of a Regional Innovation Strategy: the Day after Samsun in 2012).

174^ The GAP project started to be implemented in 1989 in order to achieve sustainable development for 11 million people in the region, which consists of nine cities. The main goal of the project is to eliminate regional disparities through raising income level and living standards. It also gives consultancy services for the entrepreneurs in the regions.

175^ It is however important to note here that the interviews in Diyarbakir took place before the government’s so-called Kurdish Initiative.

176^ The Central Finance Contract Units as a main contractor for the EU funds in Turkey were established in 2003. Therefore, the available data starts from that time.

177^ Three universities (Dokuz Eylül, Yaşar and Izmir Economy) have EU Research and Implementation Centres. Two out of 14 EU Documentation Centres created by the EU Delegation in Turkey are in Izmir (Ege and Dokuz Eylül Universities). Two universities (Dokuz Eylül and Izmir Economy) have a master program for EU Studies.

178^ In one of the recent conferences held by Yaşar University in 2011, Thomas Diez and some other European scholars were invited to give a speech. The conference was on Turkey’s Accession to the European Union in post-Lisbon Period: Challenges and Expectations.

179^ Izmir EU Information Centre under Aegean Industrialist and Businessmen Association (since 1996); Samsun EU Information Centre under Samsun Chamber of Trade and Industry (since 1997); and Diyarbakir EU Information Centre under Diyarbakir Chamber of Trade and Industry (since 1998).

180^ For further information for this board see the link http://www.izmirelele.com/Content.aspx?id=1&mid=4. The translation of the name of the website goes as ‘hand by hand for Izmir’.

181^ Two informants for this research are currently enrolled in a PhD programme in EU politics.

182^ This table was prepared based on each institution’s 2012 Activity Report. Only white collars and permanent staff were included. Blue collars and temporary staff were excluded.

183^ The table was prepared by deriving data from each organisation’s 2012 income and expense account.

184^ As a concrete example of his political involvement activity in the EU, Mayor Baydemir has been a supporter of the EU Turkey Civic Commission which favours Turkish membership in the European Union since 2004. The Commission wishes to contribute to a democratic, peaceful and lasting solution of the Kurdish problem. An article written by Mayor Baydemir about the Turkish-EU relations with specific reference to the Kurdish issue was published on the website of the aforesaid organization. His article is titled ‘Turkey’s Integration to EU and Solution of Kurdish Problem’ and can be found in the following link http://www.eutcc.org/articles/8/20/document213.ehtml (accessed on 27th August 2013).

185^ For more information see http://r2e2.am/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/press-release-en-for-kick-off-meeting.pdf (accessed on 27th August 2013).

186^ The work of Mayor Kocaoğlu seems to be having a valuable effect on the city and its inhabitants. The US-based Brookings Institution placed Izmir 4th in its 2011 edition of Economic Performance Rankings . This is a global assessment of metropolitan areas. It is the highest ever ranking of the city. In December 2012, the London-based organization (City Mayor Foundations) selected Mayor Kocaoğlu as the Mayor of the Month, making him the first Mayor from Turkey to gain this award. This information was gained from Izmir Metropolitan Municipality 2012 Activity Report.

187^ For more information about the General Secretary of Izmir RDA, Dr. Ergüder Can, see the following link: http://www.izka.org.tr/en/kurumsal/organizasyon-yapisi/genel-sekreterlik/genel-sekreter/ (accessed on 28^th August, 2013).

188^ For the implementation guideline for Turkish-Syria Interregional Cooperation Program, see the following link http://www.karacadag.org.tr/ContentDownload/Program_Implementation_Guidelines_09_November_2010.pdf (accessed 31st August 2013).

189^ For instance, the Commissioner responsible for the DG Enlargement, Gunter Verheguen, visited Izmir in 2004. This visit was arranged by one Business Association (ESIAD) in Izmir. http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=verheugen-opens-key-visit-to-turkey-2004-09-06 (accessed on 29^th August, 2013).

190^ Data derived from each organization’s official website. Only European-wide interregional organizations were included. In fact, Izmir Metropolitan Municipalities and Development Agencies are also members of some global scale interregional organizations, such as World Union of Wholesales Market, UCLG-MEWA and International Network for Small and Medium Sized Enterprises.

191^ The exception for this is Goldsmith and Klausen (1997) as well John (1994).

192^ Regional distinctiveness simply refers to a distinct identity, economic and financial sources and regional party politics.

193^ For instance, Balme and Le Gales (1997) used the metaphor of stars and holes in order to describe the variations between wealthy and less-resourced cities in France.

194^ For a rich account on Turkey’s Neighbor Policy and the potential of regional economic cooperation, Renda (2011).