Global Development

Australia’s Vocational Education And Training Sector

by
Antoine Barnaart
Antoine Barnaart is the former Vice Chancellor and CEO of the Northern Territory University in Darwin, Australia. In the late 90’s , the Tertiary and Further Education (TAFE) system in Australia under went enormous structural and organizational revision, designating various TAFE programs to some Universities. In addition to presiding over such transition, Antoine Barnhaart is the Principal Project Director for a 20 million dollar Australian Aid for International Development grant to modernize technical and work force programs and capacity for several University, Poly-technical Institutes and municipal vocational training centres in the Chongqing, China metropolitan region.

Australia is the world’s biggest island and smallest continent. With a population of 20 million, Australia is the only nation to govern an entire continent. It is the sixth largest country in the world in land area after Russia, Canada, China, the United States of America and Brazil.

Six colonies were created in the late 18th and 19th centuries. They federated and became the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 with the federation consisting of six States and two Territories. Under a federal system, powers are divided between a central government and the individual states. In Australia, power is divided between the Commonwealth Government and the six state and two territory governments¹. The Federal or Commonwealth government is responsible for national affairs and state and territory governments have a broad range of responsibilities including education and health.
Australia's multicultural society includes its indigenous peoples and migrants from some 200 countries. It is one of the world’s most urbanized countries, with about 85 per cent of the population living in urban areas, particularly along the eastern seaboard and the south-eastern corner of the continent.
Australia has one of the strongest economies in the world—competitive, open and vibrant. The nation’s high economic performance stems from effective economic management and ongoing structural reform. Australia has a competitive and dynamic private sector and a skilled, flexible workforce².
Australia also has one of the most stable economic, political and social environments in the region, which has led to increased investment from overseas in recent years. As a result of major diversification in Australia's export base, Australia is now not only a commodity exporter, it also has sophisticated manufacturing and service industries. ^3.
Development of VET in Australia

Many of the facts outlined in the previous section have had an impact on how vocational education and training (VET) has developed in Australia. Its unique geographic and demographic characteristics provide significant challenges to Commonwealth, state and territory governments as they continue to reform and improve Australia’s VET system.

Australia’s VET began to develop in the late nineteenth century through the establishment of mechanics’ institutes, schools of mines and schools of arts. The focus of these organizations was to develop the skills of Australia’s working population in a fairly narrow band of trade related industries.⁴
In New South Wales the Sydney Technical College was established by 1882, while in Victoria over 15 technical institutions were established between 1870 and 1890 including the Ballarat and Bendigo schools of mines and the forerunner of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. In South Australia the South Australian Institute, Roseworthy Agricultural College and a school of mines and industries were established by 1889 and in Queensland the Brisbane Technical College was established in 1882. In Tasmania the Hobart and Launceston Technical Colleges were established in 1888 and in Western Australia, Perth Technical College opened in 1890⁵.
Technical education remained the sole responsibility of the States and Territories after Federation in 1901. Technical education evolved gradually in each State and Territory, generally remaining under-recognized and undervalued but with increases in funding and support occurring mainly in times of crises such as during the Depression years of the 1930s and World War II. Federal Government financial assistance to the States for technical education began during World War II and continued into some of the post-war reconstruction schemes. But in the 1950s and 1960s financial responsibility still rested mainly with the States and Territories, although the Federal Government continued its support for technical education in the Australian Capital Territory which had begun in 1928 as the Canberra Trade School.
In the 1970s it became clear that Australia’s traditional manufacturing, mining, and agricultural industries had started to decline and new industries like communications, finance, and other service industries were emerging. More women were entering or re-entering the workforce and undertaking post secondary education and training⁶.. The Commonwealth Government recognized the urgent need for an inquiry into Australia’s technical education.
The 1974 Kangan Report on Needs in Technical and Further Education defined the roles and the mission of what is now known as the TAFE (Technical and Further Education) system For the first time technical education, under its new name TAFE, was given a status and a charter which gave it a recognized place within the education sector. The acceptance of the report also gave TAFE access to Commonwealth funds for both recurrent purposes and for capital works. Last, but certainly not least, the Kangan report provided the impetus for the development of a national identity for TAFE and put TAFE on the national agenda⁷. TAFE was delivered through publicly funded TAFE Colleges in each state and territory
Major VET reform

Into the 1980s the services industries continued to expand at the expense of the mining, manufacturing and construction industries --- TAFE’s traditional territory. Networks of private training providers, largely providing training to service industries, were also emerging. A number of reports pointed to the need for the training system to be driven by the needs of the individual and industry so the economy as a whole could prosper.

The big push for VET reform in Australia came in the late 1980’s when national industry leaders, in the employer and employee organizations, became very concerned that Australia’s skills development system was not able to meet the needs of a modern economy operating in a world market. This concern was triggered by a recession brought about through that large decline in the value of the traditional natural resources and primary production export base and the subsequent need to restructure Australian industry towards higher value added manufacturing and service industries. This led to a fifteen year period of conscious reform led by the Australian Government and industry.

Also prior to this period, VET was administered and developed by eight separate state and territory based systems which resulted in a lack of consistency in such fundamental aspects as:

• 
  Policy priorities between states
  
• 
  Course design and learning materials
  
• 
  Nomenclature and qualifications
  
• 
  Physical infrastructure
  
• 
  Levels of investment
  

This resulted in poor transportability of qualifications across the country, duplication of effort associated with the development of VET learning resources, limited and/or uneven involvement of industry in determining VET outcomes and reduced opportunities to promote a distinct quality assured VET product in the international education market.

In 1992 all states, territories and the Australian Government agreed to the establishment of the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) and a co-operative federal system of vocational education and training with strategic input by industry.

ANTA was an Australian Government statutory authority established to provide a national focus for vocational education and training. ANTA reported to an industry-based board and was an administrator and adviser. It advised the Ministerial Council (MINCO) of Australian Government, state and territory Ministers responsible for vocational education and training on:

• 
  VET policy, strategy, priorities, goals and objectives nationally; and
  
• 
  VET plans, which states and territories developed each year. These plans detailed how states and territories proposed to meet national priorities, goals and objectives.
  

ANTA administered national programs and the Australian Government funding of the national VET system. Some of ANTA’s key outcomes were the development, management and promotion of the national training framework, establishment of a strong industry training advisory structure, the introduction of VET in schools, and the development of training packages.

In June 30, 2005 ANTA was abolished and its responsibilities transferred to the Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST). Although DEST continues to drive VET policy reforms, the core national VET structures developed and implemented during the last 10 years have been retained, albeit with some modifications.

Australia’s existing VET system can now be described as a strong national system, formally led by industry and government, supported with delivery by both public and private VET providers and underpinned by a solid quality assured, national training framework.

Registered Training Organisations

A significant characteristic of Australian VET system is the flexibility and choice VET students have when choosing where and how they will undertake their education, training and assessment. Previous VET sector reforms expanded the delivery of formally recognized VET from public or state funded TAFE Colleges to a broad range of Government recognized VET providers or Registered Training Organizations (RTOs).

VET students may now undertake all their learning on an RTO campus, entirely in a workplace, or in any combination of these two. Public RTOs (TAFE colleges) provide the majority of VET but many other organizations have also become RTOs. These include secondary schools, enterprises, industry organizations, private VET providers, community organizations and universities. Registration of an individual RTO is a state or territory government responsibility, however, an RTO only has to register in one state or territory because registration has a national effect.
When the early VET reforms provided opportunities for a greater number of diverse organizations to become an RTO, many took the opportunity to register so they could train, assess and award national VET qualifications. However, over time, the number of new RTOs reduced because many realized that to comply with the Australian National Quality Framework (AQTF) was costly and difficult. Some RTOs also concluded that training and assessment was not their field of expertise and in some cases proved to be a distraction to their core business.
This has lead to a rationalization of RTOs, with Australia now having a good complement of both private and public RTOs. Over four thousand VET RTOs are now delivering VET to over 1.6 million Australians each year. Most importantly, Australia’s new reformed system has provided more opportunities for RTOs to work in partnerships with industry. This allows enterprises to access high quality services from training and assessment specialists and also allows RTOs to obtain access to advanced technology and the skills of enterprise staff to assist in VET delivery and assessment.

This diversification of RTOs provides many flexible opportunities to VET students regardless of their age, employment status or motivation for accessing VET training and/or assessment. Of course, it also provides great challenges for governments to develop registration and quality systems to ensure that the training and assessment underpinning the award of a national VET qualification is of consistent high quality, regardless of where and how the training and assessment was delivered. This is important so that enterprises, individuals and the community have full confidence in our national VET system.

Australian National Training Framework

A key part of Australia’s national VET system is the Australian National Training Framework. Figure 1, below, shows that the framework is made up of three key components: Training Packages, the Australian Qualifications Framework and the Australian Quality Training Framework.

Australian National Training Framework
Australian Quality

Training Framework

Training Packages

(Competency Standards)

Australian

Qualification

Framework

Figure 1: Components of the Australian National Training Framework

A Training Package describes the skills and knowledge needed to perform effectively in the workplace. Each Package is made up of competency standards linked to qualification levels and assessment guidelines outlining how a person should be assessed as competent. The focus of Training Packages is on assessment outcomes not training inputs. They do not prescribe how an individual should be trained. Teachers and trainers develop learning strategies depending on learners’ needs, abilities and circumstances.
Training Packages are developed by industry through National Industry Skills Councils or by enterprises to meet the identified training needs of specific industries or industry sectors. Training Packages complete a quality assurance process and are then endorsed by the National Training Quality Council (NTQC) and placed on the National Training Information Service (NTIS). In January 2005, there were 81 endorsed Training Packages. Nine of these were enterprise Training Packages, developed by enterprises for their own unique needs. Training Packages have a set date for review - usually around three years after they are endorsed. Information on each Training Package can be found at www.ntis.gov.au ^8.
The Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF) provides the basis for Australia’s nationally consistent, high quality vocational education and training system. The standards provide the common foundation for ensuring the quality and integrity of training and assessment services of registered training organizations (RTOs) regardless of where the training or assessment occurs. There are two sets of standards under the AQTF: Standards for Registered Training Organizations and Standards for State and Territory Registering/Course Accrediting Bodies ^9.
VET qualifications form part of a suite of qualifications, each broadly defined in the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). It covers qualifications issued by secondary schools, VET providers and higher education institutions and all are nationally endorsed. Because the Framework also includes senior secondary school certificates and university qualifications it facilitates linkages and credit transfer between the three education sectors. This promotes lifelong learning and a seamless and diverse education and training system.
There are eight AQF qualifications in the VET sector:

• 
  Certificate I, Certificate II, Certificate III, Certificate IV
  
• 
  Diploma, Advanced Diploma
  
• 
  Vocational Graduate Certificate, Vocational Graduate Diploma
  

An AQF Statement of Attainment can also be issued to those VET students that do not want to complete a full qualification. It is a record of recognized learning which, although falling short of an AQF qualification, may contribute towards a qualification outcome, either as partial completion of a course leading to a qualification, attainment of competencies within a Training Package, or completion of nationally accredited short course which may accumulate towards a qualification through Recognition of Prior Learning processes¹⁰.

Detailed information on Australia’s AQF can be found at http://www.aqf.edu.au/aqfqual.htm
A mechanism for formal industry input

Since the national VET system was formed, a range of industry advisory bodies have been the key conduits of advice and information between the VET system and industry. In 2003, the ANTA Board decided to take a new approach to exchanging advice and information with industry. Under the new approach, a new communication channel with industry was created through the establishment of 10 new 'Industry Skills Councils', which have progressively replaced the existing industry advisory bodies¹¹.

Industry Skills Councils have the two key roles of:

• 
  providing accurate industry intelligence to the VET sector about current and future skill needs and training requirements, including through industry skills reports, and
  
• 
  supporting the development, implementation and continuous improvement of quality nationally recognized training products and services, including Training Packages¹².
  

VET in Schools

As part of the national VET reforms, ANTA encouraged strategies that increased the delivery of vocational education and training in the schools sector. The definition of VET in Schools under the “ANTA Principles and Guidelines for Improving Outcomes for Vocational Education and Training in Schools” is:

‘Vocational education and training should be included as VET in Schools if it is undertaken as part of a senior secondary certificate and its completion by the student provides credit towards a recognized VET qualification within the Australian Qualifications Framework.
Australian School-Based Apprenticeships are a unique initiative under the VET in Schools policy area. They provide the opportunity for young people to gain VET qualifications and undertake employment while also completing a senior secondary certificate. Under these arrangements the student is both a full time student and part-time employee, with the same employment and training requirements as for other Australian Apprenticeships¹³.
VET in Schools continues to be recognized by all governments as a mechanism to increase the number of school leavers who will enter vocational education and training, particularly in the areas where Australia now has critical skills shortages.
Ongoing VET Reform
Reform in the VET sector in Australia is a significant and ongoing challenge. Whilst there is a national VET system, education, including vocational education, is still a prime responsibility of the states and territories. Being a federation there is always the tension of Commonwealth versus state power which can vary depending on the political status of each of the commonwealth, state and territory governments. To get agreement on national VET strategies, reforms and policies can be time consuming and frustrating for VET policy makers.
For this reason the core of Australia’s national VET system must be robust and relevant to a broad range of Australians and enterprises to endure significant political change at a national, state and territory level. A national VET system that is subject to frequent major change will not function in the short term or sustainable in the long term.
The Australian National Training Framework, described previously, is a strong core that has withstood the political change of governments, substantial bureaucratic change with the transfer of ANTA responsibilities to DEST and ongoing changes to industry advisory structures. Modifications and enhancements to this framework will occur on an ongoing basis but the fundamental structure is relevant to Australia’s existing VET needs and is a good model for other countries to consider when developing a national VET system.
Australia has a national VET strategy agreed to by the Commonwealth, state and territory governments. The title “Shaping Our Future: Australia’s National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 2004-2010” indicates that the strategy covers a longer than usual planning horizon. This national strategy is a commitment by the governments to continue to work in partnership with industry providers and other stakeholders to develop vocational education and training. The four key objectives of the strategy are

• 
  Industry will have a highly skilled workforce to support strong performance in the global economy.
  
• 
  Employers and individuals will be at the centre of vocational education and training.
  
• 
  Communities and regions will be strengthened economically and socially through learning and employment.
  
• 
  Indigenous Australians will have skills for viable jobs and their learning culture will be shared¹⁴.
  

In accordance with the Skilling Australia’s Workforce Act 2005, DEST, on behalf of the Minister for Vocational and Technical Education, produces the annual national report for the national training system. These reports provide assessment of the performance of the national training system during that year, detailed information on the operation of the national system, and its achievements and challenges.

“Shaping Our Future: Australia’s National Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 2004-2010”, the latest annual national report and a large number of other relevant VET policy documents can be found on the DEST web site at

www.dest.gov.au .

Prepared by: Mr Antoine Barnaart, VET Consultant and currently Australian Team Leader, Australia China (Chongqing) VET Project, previously Pro Vice Chancellor (TAFE & International), Northern Territory University, Australia.


Community Colleges and Further Education

in Canada
Michael L. Skolnik
Michael L. Skolnik is currently a Professor and William G. Davis Chair in Community College Leadership at the University of Toronto.
Community Colleges in Canada

Canada is a bilingual, multicultural country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. It is the second largest country in the world, spanning almost 10 million square kilometers. With a population of about 32 million, it has one of the lowest population densities in the world, 3.3 people per square kilometer. However, over 43 per cent of the population lives in six major metropolitan areas (Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton), and a large proportion of the population lives within 300 kilometers of the border with the United States.

Politically, Canada is a federation in which education, including postsecondary education, is within the jurisdiction of the provinces. There is neither a federal department of education nor an integrated national system of education. There is no national legislation pertaining to the establishment, governance or missions of higher education institutions. However, the federal government has had a significant influence on the development of postsecondary education owing to its responsibility for national economic policy and its superior capacity for raising revenue. In the 1960s, the Government of Canada provided much of the capital funding for the establishment of community colleges in the provinces, and for a time it shared the costs of operating funding with the provinces. The federal government still provides funding for postsecondary education in numerous ways including payments for occupational retraining and acquisition of official languages, student financial assistance, research grants, and support of programs for aboriginal students.

In spite of the financial support that the federal government provides for postsecondary education, matters such as the governance, mission, structure, and content of postsecondary education are fully under the control of the provinces. The contemporary community colleges were established by the provinces to serve as instruments of provincial social and economic policy, and in contrast to the universities which have been given considerable autonomy, community colleges are subject to a great deal of direction and regulation by provincial governments. Because of the differences among the provinces in regard to the management of their respective community college systems, it is difficult to offer many generalizations about Canada’s community colleges as a whole.

By way of introductory comment, one final point, regarding terminology, may be helpful for readers who wish to delve further into the literature on community colleges and postsecondary education in Canada. The practice in Canada is to use the term “college” without any modifier to refer to a community college type institution. That is, to an institution that offers programs mainly or entirely below the baccalaureate level for which completion of secondary school is a normal admission requirement. The term “university” is used in Canada to refer to any postsecondary institution for which the bulk of programs are at the baccalaureate or higher level. The terms, two-year and four-year, institutions are not used in Canada to differentiate between the two principal sectors of postsecondary education. This would not be appropriate, as several community colleges, including all of the ones in Ontario, offer some programs of three years’ duration. As well, historically baccalaureate degrees in some provinces were normally of three years’ length, and many three year baccalaureate programs still exist. Thus, in Canada, the phrase, “going to college”, means attending a community college, not a university. I shall follow that convention in this chapter. Where I use the word, college, I mean community college, though I will also use the prefix, community, where there is any doubt as to what type of college is meant. Also, the word, degree, is generally used to refer to a baccalaureate or higher degree, since associate’s degrees are not awarded in most provinces.