Global Development
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- Entrance Requirements
- Problems Facing Community Colleges in China
- Community College and Further Education in Denmark Stuart A. Rosenfeld Cynthia D. Liston Introduction
- History of Denmark’s Vocational-Technical Education
- Elements of the Danish Education System
- Social Partners
- Denmark’s Dual System
Enrollments Regarding student numbers, the total of part-time students in community colleges is more than that in full-time study. In one community college the spare time students accounted for 10,000, but the full time students numbered only about 3000. Xuanwu Flag part-time university has about 2,400 students earning a degree, but 3,500 students are enrolled in non-degree programs. Zhongguancun College has 4400 students, but 3000 students are non degree students, accounting for 73 percent of the total. Chaoyang Community College has 3266 full time students, 1500 of whom are in specialized degree program and 1500 are in TV university courses -- Open university courses that take up to 8 years of study. In addition, Chaoyang Community College cooperates with other universities such as the Foreign Economic and Trade University (700 students) and Beijing Industrial University (300). As many as 15,000 students are part-time non-degree students and 200 students are in training class for self-examination. The numbers of students who want to pursue degrees is about one-third (2000-3000), and those who do not account for about two-thirds (5000-8000). There are many training programs for people who have no job, and the government supports these programs by making them free to students. There are also training courses for rural migrant workers in most community colleges. In fact, most of the community colleges have provided some kinds of training programs for rural migrants, and the government funds some of these programs. Courses include civil servant training programs, Olympic knowledge seminars, training programs for the elderly and those out of work, English courses for adults and training courses for adult examination etc.
Community Colleges in China are amalgamated unit. Different branches of adult education and some other education institutions are incorporated together and finally a name of community college is assigned to this amalgamated unit. Xicheng Community College is composed of Xicheng economic and scientific University (established in 1986), Xicheng employee university (amalgamated with Xicheng economic and scientific university in 2000), Branch of Beijing Radio and TV university (about 2000 students. 800 of them are reading for bachelor degree), Xicheng Financial and Trade Middle Level Specialized College. There are 3500 students reading for the higher level specialized diploma. Xuanwu Community College is composed of Xuanwu Flag Part-time University, Xuanwu Radio and TV University, Xuanwu Elder People’s University, and Xuanwu Party School. Chongwen Community College includes Chongwen Zhigong daxue, Education Division of Radio and TV University, Finance College and Beijing Zhengyi Vocational College. Chongwen Community College has several branches, including the Qianmen branch and Yonwai branch. Diplomas Community colleges are public institutions. There are eight districts in Beijing, and each district has its own community college. The community colleges provide many kinds of diplomas for students, including bachelor’s degree, Dazhuan Degree. Various kinds of professional training are provided for students in community colleges, and the content of professional training always changes according to the needs of the market. The entrance level for students is also very flexible. There are three kinds of diplomas relating to higher education in community colleges:
Entrance Requirements Entrance requirements for students are very different. Students who want to get Dazhuan diplomas should pass the examination of adult higher education. Some courses do not require entrance examinations, such as television universities (also one part of community colleges) do not require entrance examinations. For example, in Shijingshan community college higher education degrees include: Shijingshan Part-time University Dazhuan degree (no bachelor degree). Radio and TV University in Shijingshan community college have both Dazhuan degree and bachelor degree. Problems Facing Community Colleges in China Even if community colleges in China are flexible and can meet diverse needs of Chinese urban communities, they are facing many problems. These problems limit the development of community colleges in China in future. The main problem is that the education ministry does not permit the name community college to be used, and it encourages higher professional schools to develop professional courses and copy the style of regular universities. Because the community colleges cannot get support from central government, it is still very difficult for them to develop. At this time, community colleges are at the district level, and they can not get support from the central government. Yet, the attitude of the local government is to give little support and let them make their own way through market forces. Problems facing community colleges in China include:
China’s rapid social and economic changes in a socialist market economy are widening urban-rural division and a large wealth-poverty income gap is fueling continuing changes in the education system. Generally, students prefer gaining admission to regular higher educational institutions (putong gaodeng jiaoyu), with national level institutions favored over provincial institutions. The national entrance examination is required for admission to all forms of recognized formal higher education in China, and usually only about half of all students will attain a score high enough for gain admission to college or university. A central theme of China’s current leaders is to develop a “harmonious, all-around, well off society.” For that, education for life-long learning is promoted as essential. In higher education there are two parallel priorities, each competing for adequate support resources:
Some Chinese educators are now asking a relevant question: “Will the emphasis on both vocational education and the production and specialized researchers to meet the immediate market needs for a highly skilled and professional labor force deter the development of education for critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity and adaptability to rapid change?” Community College and Further Education in Denmark Stuart A. Rosenfeld Cynthia D. Liston Introduction Denmark’s vocational-technical education system has been often visited and viewed as a benchmark by American policy makers. That may be surprising given its small size compared to the U.S., but in fact Denmark’s education has influenced a number of innovations in American education policy, including youth apprenticeships, national skill standards, and middle colleges. In December 2000, the government of the U.S. and the government of Denmark signed a formal cooperation agreement “to promote better understanding between the peoples of the United States of America and Denmark, to strengthen the relationships between the two countries through education, and to improve the education systems of each country.”43 Denmark’s reputation was already well established when the bilateral agreement was made. In 1999 the Carl Bertelsmann Foundation in Germany, after an extensive review of vocational education around the world based on rigorous criteria, awarded its prestigious prize for best program to Denmark. “It represents,” the Foundation wrote, “a further development of the dual system and conveys a more extensive theoretical background than the German system of vocational education and training, as the young people spend more time in school.”44 Denmark did not sit on its laurels for long, however. It was soon working to improve its system, with a series of educational reforms, including one underway at present.
Denmark’s vocational education and training is under girded by centuries of tradition dating back to medieval guilds and, in the mid-17th century, technical schools operated by the guilds In the 19th and early 20th century apprenticeship programs began at evening schools, which evolved into its current “sandwiched” classroom and workplace based diploma, certificate, and degree programs. The development of Denmark’s system is highlighted in the following chronology: 45
Elements of the Danish Education System Denmark, with a population of approximately 5.3 million people, is one of Europe’s smaller nations. Its population is nearly the same as Wisconsin’s, on only one fourth land mass. Denmark has one of the world’s highest labor market participation rates, which includes about 70 percent of all Danish women. With few giant corporations, Lego, Carlsberg, Bang & Olefsen, and Maersk notwithstanding, its economy has depended on its thousands of small and mid-sized enterprises (SMEs). Today, those export-oriented manufacturers are feeling the pressures of globalization and much of furniture and textile is being outsourced. In anticipation of these changes, for a number of years Denmark has turned its attention and its educational programs towards innovation and the knowledge economy. Denmark requires nine years of education, which cover primary and lower secondary years. The Danish education system is primarily public but it allows for private schools formed around particular ideologies or pedagogical principles, and the state cover 85 percent of private school costs.46 Preschool is voluntary but nearly all (98 percent) attend, and a tenth year, also voluntary, is chosen by 64 percent of all students. The completion rate of compulsory education is about 95 percent. Following the compulsory years, students can select to enter one of three upper secondary tracks, called “Youth Education.” Gymnasium, an academic program preparing graduates for the HHX (højere handelseksamen) and HTX (højere teknisk eksamen) higher education programs offered at the commercial and technical colleges. These courses combine academic and vocational elements and are for students expecting to move directly into higher Vocational Education and Training (VET) “dual system” programs offered through technical and commercial colleges which prepare graduates for the labor market, with possibilities for continuing to further or higher education. The latter two options comprise the Danish system of Vocational Education and Training (VET), a nationally recognized system of qualifications built around “management by objectives” and frameworks. All its standards are defined by the social partners, employees and employers considerations in trade committees. Its standards are approved by the Ministry of Education through Denmark’s Framework regulations. There are no regional or intermediate levels within the VET system, only national and local levels of governance. The vocational education system is based on three principles:
Since most of the vocational programs are three to four years, the technical and commercial colleges span a period that matches U.S. 11th and 12th grades plus the first year or two of community college. It could be argued that the Danish system is the “K-14” program of study some U.S. policy experts have recently advocated. In 2003, about 39 percent of youth chose the gymnasium path, 16 percent chose HTX or HHX, 37 percent entered a VET program, including agriculture as well as social and health care, 3 percent chose other paths, and 4 to 5 percent did not continue their education. The number of young people entering a VET program has dropped 15 percent since 2000 as more students opt for more academically oriented upper secondary education programs. Social Partners The social partners are responsible for renewing VET training courses and further training. Sustained competition between the trade unions of skilled and semi-skilled workers is a dynamic factor that underlies the continuous renewal of VET courses. Competition among these stakeholders for leadership in identifying and covering labor market functions by appropriate training programs has generated remarkable innovative momentum. Since a Reform of the VET system in 1991 the Danish VET system has been highly decentralized, based on a principle of management-by-objectives. The system has been in an ongoing evolutionary process since then, delegating greater co-responsibility and authority to the social partners and the vocational colleges.47 Table 1: Relationship among Partners in Developing Training Program
In 2000, the expenditure in Denmark on educational institutions per full-time student per year in upper secondary education was $8,000. Expenditure in France was slightly higher. In Norway it was $8,500; in Switzerland, $12,000.48 In the period 1995 to 2000, the expenditure on educational institutions per student in secondary and upper secondary education has only grown moderately compared to the increase in primary and tertiary education according to Education at a Glance 2003 from OECD. Ninety-five percent complete an upper secondary qualification according to figures from Education at a Glance from 2003 based on data from 2000. This figure includes both youth graduates as well as adult graduates under a life long learning scheme. This percentage is slightly higher than Finland, Germany, Japan and Poland. In these countries upper secondary level graduates also exceed 90 percent. Denmark’s structure for vocational education is divided among:
Importantly, there is a proposal under consideration in Denmark to end this legislative authority over the “balance of subject matter,” and allowing even more flexibility in determining curricular content within programs based on labor market and employer needs. The once highly differentiated system with hundreds of occupational options has gradually consolidated as career paths became more fluid. The Reform 2000 presented in April 1999 created fewer but wider paths into the educational system. The previous 90 VET programs were consolidated into just seven access paths, each of which has its own “basic” entry course that is fairly broad in scope: Technology and communication, building and construction, crafts and technique, food production and catering, mechanical engineering, transport and logistics service industries, and commerce, including trade, office, and finance. Within each of these seven areas, there are a sizeable number of specializations possible for students to pursue. All students have a personal education plan with a contract drawn up by teacher and student, based on an assessment of competencies, a pathway leading towards the individual’s goal, and the person’s interests. This is all entered into a national web tool called “Elevplan,” which contains the student’s plans, logbooks, papers, notes from college, and a scorecard showing progress towards goals. The system contains all learning activities offered by all colleges and allows for closer collaboration between student and teacher in tracking progress and co-planning. It also allows employers to follow their apprentices’ progress, although relatively few employers use this tool to enroll them online. The hallmark of Denmark’s vocational education, however, is its “dual system” integrating school and work experiences. Denmark’s model differs significantly from the better-known German apprenticeship model by integrating school-based theory and projects more thoroughly with practice gain through work experience. Danish vocational students spend between 30 to 50 percent of their education in school, whereas in the German or Austrian spend roughly 20 percent. Because it layers extended periods of college and work, the Danish vocational education system is sometimes referred to as the “Sandwich Model.”
The Danish VET system, for which the Ministry of Education is responsible, includes around 100 colleges. Some of these are solely technical, others are commercial, and others yet are combined, primarily as a result of college mergers over the past decade. Policy objectives and frameworks are formulated at the national level, while responsibility for planning for the content and types of education and choices of teaching methods rests at the local level. Each college has its own board of directors and manages its own budget. Typically, the first “sandwich layer” is in school and lasts for six months. This training is called the “basic” course and is fairly broad in nature, with seven different types of courses available, such as “building and construction” or “services.” Alternately, however, some students begin their VET program with a three to six month training period in companies, followed by entry into the “basic” training program at the college. In addition, vocational education in the dual system is also offered at institutions that specialize in agriculture, social, or health care programs. After completing the basic course, a student alternates periods of time on the job and in the college—typically 20 weeks on the job with 10 weeks in school—for three years before completion. The classroom learning becomes increasingly specialized over time. The student finishes with a series of competency exams. To participate in this “sandwich” apprenticeship program, after completing the “basic” course, each student must find an employer – occasionally more than one – and agree on a contract for the duration of the training program. Employers must submit formal reports that become part of the students’ portfolios. The portfolios, which include all formal communications between employer and school, follow students throughout their education. Costs of education and training at the colleges are born by tax revenues distributed by the government. However employers are required pay students’ wage, which are at least half of minimum wage, during both the workplace and classroom parts of the program. Every company with more than one employee must pay into a collective training fund, and as an economic incentive those firms that take apprentices are reimbursed for 90 percent of the apprentices’ wages during their in-school periods and 80 percent of their travel expenses through the Fund. In 2003 each employer paid 370 DKR (approximately $60 USD) every three months for every full time employee-equivalent. In 2003 the Employers' Reimbursement Fund (AER) paid more than 2.9 billion DKR (approximately $468 million USD) in reimbursement to companies with apprentices.49 Yüklə 1,63 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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