Global Development
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- Bu səhifədəki naviqasiya:
- A College’s Response to Foster, et al
- Metropolitan College England
- Community Colleges and Further Education in French West Africa Geremie Sawadogo
- The French Colonial Legacy
- The Changing Fortunes of Vocational and Technical Education
- Current Landscape and Challenges of Technical and Vocational Education in FWA
- Appendix- List of Technical and Vocational Schools in FWA
Success rates Assessments of quality in colleges are currently based on three measures: inspection evidence, learner success rates and learner satisfaction levels. Inspection evidence: The headline current position. About 90% of provision is regarded as satisfactory or better. But there is not yet a clear improving trend in quality. Learner success rates: These have improved quite significantly – from 59% in 2000/01 to 72% in 2003/04 [Figure 6]. However, these averages conceal huge variations between individual colleges and between individual subject areas. Learner satisfaction evidence: Learners report that they are satisfied with the learning they receive in colleges. 90% of learners say they are satisfied with their current learning experience. FIGURE 6 
FE colleges headline learner success rate 1997/98 to 2003/04) Source: DfES
There is a perception that the headline success rate has increased because of a narrowing of the success rate gap between the ‘worst’ and ‘best’ colleges. This does not appear to be true – success rate improvement has been at the bottom and top end of the distribution. For GFEC and sixth form colleges the success rate gap between the top and bottom performing colleges (defined as the 90th percentile and 10th percentile respectively) has narrowed only very slightly over the period 1998/99-2002/03. There is a gap in performance between average headline success rates for GFECs and those for sixth form colleges (67% and 76% respectively). However, when we looked at this gap it can largely be explained by provision type and prior qualifications of learners. Other characteristics of learners in GFECs, such as motivation and social environment (sense of failure at 16, culture that is less positive to education) may explain much of the difference. 63
Sir Andrew Foster has been seen as the first person to produce an accurate topographical map of the FE landscape. As Foster predicted in pre report forums, each of the three main constituents have tended to agree with the good points made about themselves and emphasize how much the others need to do. So the College body, the Association of Colleges (AoC), has welcomed the endorsement of so much of what the sector does and called upon LSC and DfES to “heal themselves”. LSC has said we were changing anyway and everything will be dealt with through our Agenda for Change!’ Perhaps it is the Department and ministers who are intent on the most radical response. The White paper, published as this chapter goes to print, does point to some of this radicalism. “Contestability” This is a classic New Labour “third way” solution to the dilemma that public sector monopolies tend to be inefficient, lack sufficient choice and coast whilst unfettered competition tends to leave the most vulnerable at risk, leads to “two tier standards of service with those able to pay receiving the best and anyway when market forces come into play politicians often cannot live with the consequences e.g. a school closure. Contestability provides a compromise by limiting competition to provide between public and private sectors to specified contexts. Such contexts tend to be: Where new provision is required Where current provision has failed Where there is a monopoly provider
The benefit of this approach is that an element of competition is introduced, levering up standards and breaking the stranglehold of the public sector but at the same time enabling a strong public sector core and protection of the most vulnerable. The first such contestability application in the FE sector came in the North West, near Liverpool, when the LSC invited bids to run sixth form provision in order to fill an apparent gap.
This is another example of the contestability approach in action. Arising from the concerns about the skills gap in the British workforce outlined in Leitch et al, the Government is launching a national employer training programme targeting workers without level 2 qualifications. Because it is a new programme, there will be competition for the business between private and public sector providers. Foster stopped short of recommendations about college structures. His report was clearly influenced by what he saw and learned of North American systems. He obviously admired the Honourable Bob Rae’s February 2005 Postsecondary Review report64, quoting from it on a number of occasions. He also spoke appreciatively of aspects of the community college systems in the USA, and noted “There are many similarities between the recommendations in the Ontario Review and the conclusions of this Review of the English FE college system.65” Foster probably believed that structural reform had to be preceded by a period of strengthening the reputation of colleges and, in particular, the larger and successful colleges punching their weight. Paragraph 157 of his report states: “We advocate a quick review of reputation led by DfES, involving LSC and AoC to come forward with a range of practical proposals that capitalize on this lead. This review could result in a greater involvement of principals in national representation, in particular those from larger, successful colleges where management capacity and capability exists to release them for this work. There is a strong need for articulate FE college principals to be explaining the services they give to society and how colleges can make a significant contribution to the economy and to developing fulfilled citizens.” Interestingly a grouping of such colleges has been formed and boldly taken that paragraph as its name! The 157 group intends to influence the post Foster debate. Key objectives include promoting the case for college self regulation including over FE qualifications. Our Scottish counterparts are ahead of us under their devolved arrangements.66 But we cannot dodge any longer in this chapter the real $64 million dollar question: Do we really need all these colleges? No we do not! At least, that is the view of Professor David Robertson67 writing in Parliamentary Brief in December 2005: “So what should ministers and the DfES consider when bringing forward proposals in the coming months? “First, there are simply too many FE colleges, too small to punch their weight in regional battles with Government Offices, universities or Regional Development Agencies, and too ineffectually governed. The 450 colleges and 8000 governors could be reduced to 100 regional federations, headed by an executive college ‘President’; governed by a high-quality Board appointed by and accountable to the Secretary of State; and with a clear mission that precludes ‘mission drift’. Each regional college would be responsible for the strategic management of its constituent resources; the local colleges acting rather as faculties in a University, more broadly-based perhaps but with definitive specialisms. “The new ‘super-college’ could have fresh powers devolved to it: for example, the power to award qualifications in its own name. The quality assurance and management information systems needed to underpin such powers would be more readily developed by a body with £100 million at its disposal than at present. Once the college owns its awards, it has a reputation to protect, and that drives up standards faster than anything. “Second, with professional governance and executive management, super-colleges can be trusted with direct funding and substantial discretion over action in their regional markets. This means a smaller, disintermediated role for the LSC, although no smaller role for the quality inspectorate. “Finally, the FE brand will have been truly strengthened when the college ‘President’, arriving to discuss matters with the local University or RDA, is able to park his (or her) tank on the lawn. At the moment, the college Principal tends to arrive by bike. But if you are ‘President’ of an institution of 100,000 students and a £100 million budget, then some kind of negotiating parity has been established. “If ministers are serious about sorting out vocational education, this is the kind of bold remedy they should foster.” Metropolitan College England The variety of colleges in England is so great that to illustrate the response to our fast moving agenda I have created Metropolitan College. It serves a large conurbation of around 500 000 people. There is a small general FE college in one of the suburbs and a sixth form college at the other end of the conurbation. Most of the schools are 11-16 with a couple of denominational68 11-18 schools. The success rate at 16 (the % of pupils achieving 5 good [i.e. grade C or above] passes is well below the norm and in the bottom quartile for cities. From 2008 rolls begin to fall. From around 2010 three new Academies will be created. Academies have sixth forms and these will undoubtedly take some potential students from Metropolitan. Metropolitan is currently housed in a number of main campuses. It provides engineering and construction in a converted warehouse on an industrial estate convenient for access. It has a modern sixth form centre well located in the city centre. Its vocational provision in customer services and care is housed in a sixties building reaching the end of its useful life. One of the strong beneficial policies is the availability of capital funding to replace such facilities with world class buildings. Consideration of a £50 million new build is forcing Metropolitan to confront an uncertain future. When looking at the 16-19 market will more young people stay on at school? If schools undertake more vocational courses from 14 will they achieve and want to come on to college for level 3 and 4 study? Metropolitan provides several hundred places for 14-16 year olds who attend college one day a week. It seems to be helping recruitment from schools with generally low post 16 participation. If Metropolitan moves to the city centre, will it affect these students? Should Metropolitan be really radical and establish a 14-18 Academy either in collaboration with some of the schools or in its own right? Work based learning including apprenticeships is an important provision for Metropolitan. In recent years it has switched some of its full time provision in areas such as hair & beauty from campus based to work based. On balance it will probably decide to pursue this route. So in planning its new build it can do without some of the current salon space. Metropolitan has been gradually increasing its Higher Education provision and now recruits some 800 full time equivalents. The provision has been reviewed by the Quality Assurance Agency and commended. But the introduction of top-up fees from September 2006 may have effects69. The overall applicants to HE are down and it is likely that Universities will reduce their offers taking students from Metropolitan. The question of fees is a dominant issue for Metropolitan. Traditionally it has not charged adults a fee although the funding from the LSC assumed that 25% of the cost of a course was covered by fees. This is now being increased by five percentage points per annum. Metropolitan is having to look at each course to determine its viability. If fees are levied will students enroll? If students are in-filling then a lower fee may be chargeable. This affects some 2000 full time students. On the other hand, Government has decided that level 2 is the minimum level that the state should ensure its population reaches. Adults without a full level 2 qualification70 will have their fees remitted so the funding can be claimed in full from LSC. The White paper has extended this principle to provide for an entitlement for young adults (aged 19-25) to have their fees fully remitted to enable them to achieve their first full level three qualification. This need to be aware of distinctions in Metropolitan’s customers beyond their immediate educational ones is stretching its management capacity. Traditionally most managers rise through the ranks on the basis of their academic and pedagogic talent. Adapting to the commercial challenge of fees and contestability is proving difficult for them. This may lead to a more pronounced demarcation between teaching staff and their team leaders on the one hand and corporate management on the other. Metropolitan is very aware of a significant expansion of the private sector that believes opportunities will come their way to run programmes and even institutions. Should Metropolitan seek to forge alliances with the private sector utilizing each others’ strengths or gear up to try to win the competitive struggle? One of the areas where there are new players is community development and in particular provision for the unemployed and those not in employment. The distinction is significant. The Government has kept unemployment relatively low by a combination of sound and stable macroeconomic policy combined with active programmes - the New Deals - to get people back to work. Lately, however, we have discovered the issue of worklessness. A much larger number of people are on incapacity benefit than realized. The benefit system has acted as a deterrent to seeking work and is to be reformed. It is also the case that a high proportion of those not in work have no qualifications and lack basic skills. Even in this apparently safe area of its provision Metropolitan has come under pressure to achieve more countable qualifications; that is, those beyond first steps. A very significant area of provision is ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages). This has tended to be for asylum seekers and refugees, but there has been a very rapid increase in economic migrants from the recent accession countries of Eastern Europe. This is good business for Metropolitan and it is developing imaginative responses such as a language bus to tour the industrial estates of the conurbation. There are over 500 students in ESOL and another 500 waiting. These community agendas tend to engage a panoply of players including the conurbation council, regional and sub regional agencies, the voluntary sector and colleges. Partnerships are in vogue but are time consuming. Partnerships expect to see Metropolitan’s Principal, but so do they ‘back at the ranch’. Finally, Metropolitan is keen to expand its international portfolio. It has around 800 international students at the college but would like to expand this number. Britain as a destination has been hit because of visa restrictions, aggressive marketing from US and Australian colleges in particular and perhaps a perception that we have not been as customer oriented as we might have been. Metropolitan is keen to expand its East European activities and explore the possibilities in Asia but probably in conjunction with a neighboring university. Metropolitan has a commitment to supporting colleges in Africa to upgrade their facilities and range of provision but without a Government fund is frustrated that it cannot do so. So as the President of our eponymous Metropolitan College surveys the papers strewn across his desk he realizes that there is no room for complacency, no comfort zone to retreat into, just the never ending struggle to continue to help his students to improve their life chances through high quality teaching and learning.
Technical and vocational schools have long been a staple of the educational system in French speaking West Africa (FWA). While they were initially conceived to provide clerical and administrative skills to the French colonial administration, these schools, particularly those at the secondary level, slowly became a receptacle for those students who were not “smart” enough to enter the more prestigious general education stream. As time went by, the elitist French education system contributed to creating a perception that these schools were inferior. However, as demands for access to education and the need for specialized skills grew, it became increasingly obvious to policy makers and parents that these schools had a crucial role to play in the education and the economic development of their countries. So, while the American community college model does not exist in WFA, these technical schools, particularly at the higher education level have played similar roles. In particular, the “Institut Universitaire de Technologie”, a two-year post secondary institution which grants a two-year degree in business and administration known as DUT (Diplome Universitaire de Technologie). Today as Africa strives to meet UNESCO’s goals of Education for All, the technical schools are again at the forefront of the discussions on access to education, particularly in rural areas and for marginalized populations and on their impact on the countries’ economic development as a means for equipping Africans with the technical skills and know-how needed for the 21st century. To further explore the role that these schools can play in economic development, this paper will first review the historical, cultural and political rationale that lead to their establishment; discuss their place and effectiveness in today’s French West Africa in Benin; Burkina Faso; Cote d’Ivoire; Mali, Niger; Mauritania, Senegal and Togo; and conclude with recommendations on how these institutions can play an even greater role in the economic development efforts of these countries. In so doing, this paper extensively draws on key reports from UNESCO and UNEVOC71.
No other assimilation-driven policies were as successful as those carried out by the French colonial enterprise in Africa. Thus, understanding the place of technical education in the current educational system requires a brief review of colonial French educational policies in Africa. Although public or official schools first appeared in Senegal between 1847 and 1895, they did not become common in the rest of the colonies until late 1896. Only after 1900 with the organization of the federated colonies of French West Africa, did France outlined its educational policies for the region. Thus, by decree in 1903, education in French West Africa was organized into a system of primary schools, upper primary schools, professional schools, and a normal school. Two further reorganization decrees for all of FWA followed in 1912 and 1918, and key schools were established, including the St. Louis Normal School in 1907 (transferred to Gorée in 1913), the School for Student Marine Mechanics of Dakar in 1912, and the School of Medicine of Dakar in 1916 (Bulletin de l’Enseignement en AOF, No. 25, 1921). More specifically, French colonial educational policy was intended to expand the influence of the French language, the [French] nationality or culture in Africa as expressed in the official statements of the Governor-General: “Colonial duty and political necessity impose a double task on our education work: on the one hand it is a matter of training an indigenous staff destined to become our assistants throughout the domains, and to assure the ascension of a carefully chosen elite, and on the other hand it is a matter of educating the masses, to bring them nearer to us and to change their way of life” (Bulletin de l'Enseignement en AOF, No. 74, 1931). The first schools to be established were missionary schools and though the education they provided played a key role in introducing western style education in the colonies, it failed on several fronts due to the following reasons:
In an attempt to address these shortcomings and mainly to infuse their own political ideology into the schooling process, the colonial government gradually replaced religious learning with a largely secular school system. Thus, education was to serve an entirely different purpose for the government than it had for the missionaries, namely that of the crucial role of reducing native resistance to the white outsiders. This is illustrated in Governor-General William Ponty 1909 circular to all governors, in which he urged them to reduce the powers of native and Moslem leaders, and to exert pressure on chiefs to send their children to French schools. As the Inspector of Education for the AOF commented ten years later, ‘”The first requirement of the education which we give in our colonies should be one of practical utility, first of all for us, and then for the natives.” (Harrison, Ingawa & Martin, 1960). Thus, both the elitist and political nature of French colonial education policies explain the role that was historically bestowed on vocational and technical schools. Indeed, these institutions were primarily conceived to train qualified labor for the colonial economy with an initial emphasis on clerical and administrative skills and on educating those who were not sufficiently qualified or smart enough to go through the general educational cycle (Foster, 1966). Transitional Phase A decade after the colonies were granted their independence from France, it became obvious that this educational model was no longer meeting the development needs of the countries. For one thing, a baffling paradox of too many people looking for jobs while at the same time too many unfilled jobs began to appear. To make matters worse, a growing number of unemployed were among the educated while the countries experienced a persistent shortage of vocational and technical skills in many areas of the economy. Furthermore, as Atchoarena and Delluc (2002) assert, the economic and financial crisis that struck sub-Saharan African countries in the mid 1980s brought deep changes in the production system and labor market. The end of guaranteed access to public sector employment contributed to increased unemployment among graduates and a deterioration of the rate of return on investment in post basic education, which in turn stressed the urgency to strengthen vocational and technical education. In order to achieve this, most African countries choose to (1) either strengthen separate vocational institutions, usually at the secondary level, or (2) initiate curriculum diversification programs, to introduce prevocational subjects to primary and secondary students. The latter was often justified by asserting that it would benefit dropouts and repeaters who, incidentally make up a significant component of the informal sector (Isaac Mazonde, 1989). Unfortunately, labor market considerations have rarely informed these investment strategies. As a result, occupational areas that made up the curriculum of these schools seldom kept pace with the demands of the socio-economic environment (Middleton & Oemsky, 1989). Also, as one might have guessed it, the French West African countries borrowed heavily from France’s educational models in their efforts to develop vocational and technical schools oftentimes with serious oversights, as illustrated in the case of the French technical BACs. In France, their creation was followed by the creation of another degree; the BTS, eligibility for which was almost entirely reserved for students holding a technical BAC making a large majority eligible to take advantage of that two-year training that open doors in the job market. In Africa however, setting up the Technical BACs was rarely accompanied by offerings of BTS. Thus, students who obtained their BAC had no other options except in rare cases, where some were accepted in tertiary education where they found themselves challenged by the course work more tailored to students who have obtained a Science BAC. So, even as the importance of vocational and technical schools for national economic development was being touted there remained a lingering perception by students and parents that the education given in these schools, particularly at the primary and secondary education level, was not up to par with general education and that these schools in only existed to “salvage” general education failures. In most cases, indeed, students were from a lower economic class or did not have grades high enough to continue on to general (Psacharopoulos and Loxley, 1985). Overall, the effectiveness of these schools was hampered by their rigidity, their inability to adapt to the changing demands of the labor market, and the continuous perception that they were inferior educational institutions.
As unemployment rates grew to alarming figures and the number of young people excluded from school swelled world-wide to over 300 millions (UNESCO statistical data, 2006) technical and vocational education long considered as second rate education, regained some luster. This is evidenced by the recommendations and reports from key international conferences including, “Les assises francophones de la formation technique et professionnelle” (Bamako, 26-29 mai, 1996); The second international Congress on Technical and Vocational Education (Soul, Korea April 1999; the Francophonie meetings and the EFA meeting in Senegal 2000; the 2001 UNESCO-ILO revised recommendations on technical and vocational education; and the International Experts Meeting on Learning for Work, Citizenship and Sustainability, meeting (Bonn Germany, 25-28 October 2004). Altogether, these conferences reiterated the views held by UNESCO and UNEVOC of the important role of TVE in ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs (Goal 3 of the EFA) and in ushering developing countries into the 21st century by equipping its citizenry with needed technical skills and competencies for the knowledge economy. What Benavot (1983) refers to as the "rise and fall of vocational education,” is derived in large part from the continuous failures and challenges of general education. As dramatically illustrated by statistics from UNESCO, in one out of four African countries, 50 percent of the children enrolled at the end of primary school do not continue to the secondary level in the following year. By comparison, more than 85% of primary pupils make the transition in most countries in Europe, Asia, North and South America. Just 25% of African countries achieve similar results. African continues to have the lowest completion of primary completion ratio in the world. While in Europe, almost all countries have a ratio exceeding 90%. Out of 45 African countries, only eight reach this level: Algeria, Botswana, Cape Verde, Egypt, Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa and Tunisia (No FWA country met these standards). And only one in three children will complete primary education in six countries including the following FWA countries: Niger (21%), Guinea Burkina Faso (27%); Chad (32%); and Mali (33%). In the technical area, Africa only has 20,000 scientists and engineers or 0.36% of the world’s total. Africa only publishes 1.5% of scientific publications and has no recorded patents. Yet, according to the UN commission for Africa, the continent loses 20,000 specialists (doctors, university professors, and engineers) every year or totaling about 60,000 between 1985 and 1990. Today, of 100 children who enroll in the first year of primary education, only 30 will continue with either secondary education or some form of vocational training and eventually 3 may pursue tertiary level education and training. The majority will terminate at primary level. How can Technical education help this silent majority for whom only 30% continues past primary education (UNESCO Statistical data, 2005). With this dismal situation, it is easy to see why policy makers and parents alike are turning more to vocational and technical schools as a viable alternative.
As presented in Figure 1 above, a common feature of the educational system in FWA is as follows: Primary education (6 years); Junior Secondary School (4 years); Senior Secondary School (3 years) and Basic University Degree Bachelors (3 years). A key characteristic of the system is that while pathways exist for students in the general education stream to move to the technical vocation stream, there is neither a pathway nor articulation agreements for students in the technical stream to enter the general education stream, thus, for many of the students in the technical stream, the end of the study cycle signifies the end of their education process. It is also important to note that most, if not all, of the technical schools, are located in urban areas; however the skills set needed are more in demand in rural areas where unemployment and illiteracy are much higher and access to education continues to be very limited. Furthermore, in spite of the high illiteracy rate, training in these schools, even when they are located in rural areas continue to be provided in French rather than in widely used local languages. In spite of numerous educational reforms and some progress made by some countries, Jean Nang Son (1986) correctly depicts the current educational and economic environment rather as bleak with the following characteristics: (1) High unemployment rates in all African countries notably among young graduates who do not have any technical nor professional skills.; (2) the growth of the informal sector with a very dynamic apprenticeship sector; (3) lack of organization among apprenticeships; (4) lack of coordination of training or educational offerings between technical schools and universities; and (5) stigma about the value and usefulness of technical education when compared with general education for the economic development of Africa. In addition, challenges related to the governance and administrative oversights of these schools remain common. In reviewing governance of these schools, David Atchoarena and Andre Delluc (2001) identify 3 main configurations: (1) Oversight of technical and vocational education to the Ministry of Education as in Mali currently; (2) the creation of a separate Ministry for Vocational Education (Benin, Cote D’Ivoire, Senegal and Togo); and (3) vocational education is attached to the Ministry of labor or employment and technical education under the Ministry of Education. In many countries the oversight of technical education is often the shared responsibility between several ministries, most notably the Ministries of education, technical training and labor. This, as one can imagine, results in lack of focus and direction, not to mention insufficient funding support and commitment. The case of Cote d’Ivoire vividly illustrates this issue. The Ministry of Technical and Vocational Education (Ministere de l’enseignement technique et de la formation Professionnelle/METFP) was created in 1970 and integrated in 1983 into the Ministry of Education in 1983. Three years later in 1986, it was broken up and became a ministerial unit. In 1996 it was again integrated into the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research. Since 2000, the oversight of all technical and vocational education now rests with the Ministry of Youth, Employment and Vocational Education (MJEFP). Though this example is from the Cote d’Ivoire the same can be said of most French West African countries and illustrates the political ambivalence and ambiguity over the role and place that these institutions hold in the education and economic development efforts of the FWA countries One of the most obvious shortcomings of technical education in FWA is that of relevancy (Grierson,1997). For instance these schools have ignored the informal sector, especially artisans’ micro enterprises and the very successful apprenticeship models the region is so famous for. As a result, extensive apprenticeship programs are cropping up everywhere in the sub region at the margin of the formal vocational and technical education systems, though there is wide concern about the fact that these apprenticeships for the most part, are not capable of providing theoretical knowledge relevant to the skills they are transmitting. Rather than being conceived as single educational entities with varied program offerings, the educational landscape, even within individual countries, reveals a multiplicity of schools each specialized in a single technical area. Though this might lead to a highly focused and specialized training, this model of education is not cost effective and nor can it take advantage of the teaching and learning synergy that institutions with diverse offerings and a diverse student body can offer. Finally, in addition to the limited number of institutions, UNEVOC identifies the following as contributing factors in limiting access to technical education in the region (UNEVOC, 2005). In many countries, Technical and Vocation Education (TVE) is delivered in French only, which are often the languages of former colonial powers and not spoken by everyone in the society. Women often find it difficult to enter TVE programs because they are either denied access, or because they are not expected to enter certain male-dominated occupations. Furthermore, women may be required to stay at home to help with housework and farm work. Learners from low-income backgrounds are confronted with difficulties in entering TVE programs because training providers may demand tuition fees. In rural areas there are generally restricted training opportunities available since, in most countries, the best vocational schools and training schemes are located in the capital or major cities. Entering a TVE school or training institution may mean living far away from home with all the financial and social implications, including absence from work, family and friends. People beyond a certain age may find it difficult to gain access to TVE. Not only is the TVE system in many countries only prepared to cater for younger people, but potential older candidates for courses are often needed as income-generators and so are not free to attend courses. In many cases, funds (such as government grants) to cover living costs during a training period are not available. In many countries stereotypes still remain against TVE rendering it undesirable for many (UNEVOC, 2005) While there has been no conclusive study examining the role of education on economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, for which much investment is predicated, cross-national research suggest positive returns for vocational education during certain periods. For example, Benavot (1983) found that vocational education had a slightly stronger effect than general education on economic growth for all less developed countries during the period between 1955 and 1970. These institutions must therefore become a focus of attention not only as a response to the current educational crisis marked by prolonged student or faculty strikes and yearlong closures but as a means to address the need to provide technical skills needed for globalization and to fight high unemployment rates. The final section of this paper discusses recommendations for revitalizing technical education in FWA. Recommendations: In 2004, the participants in the Second International Congress on Technical and Vocational Education (TVE), which was devoted to the theme of lifelong learning and training as a bridge to the future, formulated several recommendations to the Director-General of UNESCO, including the following: (1) ensuring that TVE be designed to provide skills for all and remain an accessible basic human right; (2) reforming TVE systems to achieve flexibility, innovation, and productivity; (3) forming a new partnership between education and the world of work and fostering development of generic competencies, the work ethic, technological and entrepreneurial skills, and imparting human values and standards for responsible citizenship; (4) designing TVE experiences as developmental life experiences with cultural and environmental aspects in addition to economic dimensions; and (5) reorienting the TVE curriculum to reflect new subjects and issues of importance. While these are good recommendations, they are too broad. The assessment of the TVE in FWA along with the review of the related literature on these institutions carried out in this paper, suggest four main areas of interventions including: (1) the high cost of vocation and technical education; (2) relevance of the training; (4) governance, image and access; and (4) lack of relevant statistical data on the technical and vocational schools.
The cost of technical and vocational education remains high when compared to that of general education. As a result of the combined pressures of growing demands and declining resources there has been a push for a search for less costly, more efficient and more appropriate forms of vocational education which often has resulted in lower quality offerings. While international agencies such as The World Bank, UNESCO and many donor countries such as Switzerland, Germany and France have contributed funds to targeted initiatives in some countries, the best hope remains resources which can be harnessed from local businesses. Both Senegal and Togo and, to some extent, the Cote d’Ivoire have successful examples of funding mechanisms negotiated with the private sector which can be shared with the other FWA countries. Furthermore, the regional schools which were established in the 1970s and 1980s and are now closed due to low enrollment and failure from member countries to pay their dues, should be re-organized to accept regional intake as a financially viable alternative for running expensive country specific training centers or schools. 2. Relevance There is a growing mismatch between the training offered by vocational training programs and the skills needed for dynamic competitive markets with the principle measure of relevance being jobs. While this can be seen as an indication of the lingering effect of the legacy of the French educational policies, it is also a result of the absence of national debate about the goals and roles of these institutions. While it is customary to have national conferences on educational reforms, in FWA, they, rarely address the state and roles of the technical schools which are often an afterthought of general education. Relevance can thus be discussed in light of the skills and competencies needed by each country, region, community and its employers and enterprises. To further increase the relevancy and appropriateness of these programs, discussions on linkages with industries and enterprises should also include a discussion on student motivation as it relates to self-employment to ensure that students are placed in the right programs of study. Finally, many countries have used enterprise-based training not only as a way to reduce educational cost, but to also to ensure the relevancy of the training which is being provided. Linkages with industries to develop funding and enterprise-based training can be best achieved by creating a department within the schools responsible for partnerships with businesses. Such departments should also endeavor to identify market segments which provide or are going to provide employment labor market analysis and skill need identification, a process that the informal sector with its apprenticeships has so well mastered. 3. Governance, image and access The current financial health of the technical and vocational education and the perception that students have vis-à-vis their relevancy and usefulness can be effectively alleviated if issues surrounding their governance and their image are properly addressed. With respect to governance, the FWA countries must establish long-lasting ministerial anchors for technical schools. Indeed, the frequent changes in governance create an identity crisis for these institutions and send the message that technical and vocational education is disposable and not important. A stable identity will help the systems develop allies and advocates who can assist in policy advocacy and fund raising. Advocates and educators and politicians must also work together to repair the image of these schools so that they are perceived to be as good as general education schools. This can be accomplished by making sure that the training received reflects labor market needs. Equally important is the need to create pathways and articulation agreements to allow testing and free transfer between the various programs and existing universities programs for continuing their education. At the moment, while students in general education can take tests to attend technical schools, students in technical schools are rarely permitted to transfer to general education. Creating these pathways and articulation agreements will go a long way toward the perception that technical and vocational education is inferior to general education and will further make even more educational opportunities to all.
The lack of accurate and timely statistical data concerning enrolment and impact of technical and vocational education should not surprise given the challenges described in the section above regarding governance of these institutions. It is neither a new problem having figured preeminently in the recommendations of many reports. In response, national observatories were created in most of FWA to collect statistical data on technical and vocational schools as well as labor statistics in order to assist the countries in making informed planning decisions. However 15 years after their creation, the observatories can not be relied upon to produce actionable data on technical and vocational education. This author experienced this shortcoming while placing several calls to the observatories in many of the countries reviewed in this study only to be told to call BREDA (Regional UNESCO Office for Africa located in Dakar, Senegal) or UNESCO. It should be obvious by now that if these institutions are to fully play their role of reducing unemployment and leading African countries into the 21st century, accurate data, particularly with respect to enrolment figures, occupational areas and most importantly, their impact of TVE on employment and economic development must be gathered and made available to planners and educators alike to better respond to students needs and positively affect national development.
In one of the classic novels, L’Aventure Ambigue of Mamadou Kane, a long time required reading for generations of FWA students (including this author), a clash of cultures between traditional African cultures and those of the West primarily represented by modern education is depicted. At issue is whether the locals should send their children to the foreigners’ schools. The matriarch of the family must make a decision and while recognizing the “risks” decides to send her children to the foreigners’ school. The new school is the new form of war which those who have come here are waging, and we must send our elite there, expecting that all the country will follow them. (…) If there is a risk, they are best prepared to cope successfully with it, because they are most firmly attached to what they are. Though this story is set in the 1940’s in Senegal, the core issues of relevancy, impact and goals of education depicted in the book remain equally compelling for technical and vocational education in FWA today as they were for the populations then. As shown in this paper, there is a wide diversity in the types, governance, funding schemes of technical schools in FWA. Yet, in the face of this diverse configuration, lingering negative stereotypes, lack of funding, lack of statistical data, remain common challenges throughout the FWA countries. These issues are best addressed by concerted efforts between the governments, employers, businesses and educators. For instance, governments and businesses can address issues concerning funding and relevancy of occupational areas of training and educators could be have the responsibility of gathering knowledge and practices which can be relevant to their respective countries. The reputation and the image of these institutions will be enhanced once the population see changes in governments’ priority and political investment and commitment vis-à-vis these institutions. At the present and as seen in this paper, such government support and commitment is lacking in most of the countries.
Jean Nang Son, L’Afrique et la formation technique et professionnelle à l’aube du 21ème siècle. D+C Développement et Coopération (No. 6, Novembre/Décembre 2001, p. 14 - 17) Kogoe Akrima Trends and Issues in Vocational Technical Education in Francophone West Africa ERIC ED 256960
David Atchoarena and Paul Esquieu. Private Technical and Vocational Education In Sub-saharan Africa Provisions patterns and policies issues. IIEP-UNESCO. 2002. David Atchoarena & Andre Delluc. Revisiting Technical and vocational Education in Sub Saharan Africa. An update on trends, innovations and challenges. International Institute for Educational Planning - UNESCO 2001 Development of Technical and Vocational Education in Africa. UNEVOC-BREDA 1996. Foster, Philip. 1992. “Vocational Education and Training: A major shift in World Bank Policy.” Prospects 22(2): 149-155. Grierson, John P. Where There Is No Job: Vocational Training for Self-employment in Developing Countries. Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management. University of Edinburgh, Centre of African Studies, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 1997. Middleton, J., & Ziderman, A. (1997). Overview: World Bank policy research on vocational education and training (Skills training in developing countries: finance and planning issues). International Journal of Manpower, 18;(1-2),6-29. Middleton, J. (1991). World Bank support for vocational education and training: New directions for the 1990s. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 28(3),7-21. Middleton, J. & Demsky, T. Review of World Bank investments in vocational education and training for industry. Washington, DC: Education and Employment Division, World Bank. 1988 Isaac Mazonde . Culture and Education in the Development of Africa. UN, Workshop on Education. Zambia, 1997 Psacharopoulos, G., & Loxley, W. (1985). Diversified secondary education and development. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Le Partenariat dans l’Enseignement Technique et Professionnel. UNEVOC. January 1999. UNEVOC-UNESCO TVET in West Africa-Discussion papers Jan.31.03 UNEVOC. Improving Access to TVET. February 2005. Appendix- List of Technical and Vocational Schools in FWA Bénin
Direction des Enseignements Technique et Professionnel (D.E.T.P.) B.P. 2416 • Contonou Burkina Faso Africa
Lycée Technique Industriel et Commercial de Ouagadougou (L.T.O.) Sis a Zogona, Zone Universitaire 01 • Ouagadougou 01 B.P. 98 • Ouagadougou 01
B.P. 1465 • Ouagadougou 01 Collège d'Enseignement Technique Feminin (CETF) 01 B.P. 2720 • Ouagadougou 01 Collège Privé d'Enseignement Technique Secteur 4 • Koudougou B.P. 363 • Koudougou
BP 305, Bobo-Dioulasso Telephone: 20-97-10-17 Fax: 20-97-08-02 Email: cesao.bobo@fasonet.bf
BP 7023, Ouagadougou 03 Telephone: 30-20-53 Fax: 31-27-24 Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso 01 BP 1091, Bobo-Dioulasso 01 Telephone: 20-98-06-35 Fax: 20-98-25-77 Email: akry@univ-ouaga.bf
Ecole Nationale d’Administration BP 768, N’Djamena Founded: 1963 Set up by the Government and controlled by an Administrative Council to train students as public servants Dir: N. Guelina Institut Supérieur des Sciences de l’Education BP 473 N’Djamena Telephone: 51-44-87 Fax: 51-45-50 Founded: 1992
Institut Pédagogique National de l'Enseignement Technique et Professionnel (IPNETP) 08 BP 2098 • Abidjan 08
BP 638 • Odienne Lycée professionnel hôtelier de la Rivièra BP V 228 • Abidjan Lycée Professionnel de San Pédro BP 1212 • San Pédro Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny BP 1093, Yamoussoukro Telephone: 30-64-05-41 Fax: 30-64-04-06 Ecole Supérieure Interafricaine de l’Electricité Interafrican Electrical Engineering College BP 311, Bingerville Telephone: 22-40-33-12 Fax: 22-40-35-07
BP 1313, Yamoussoukro Telephone: 30-64-07-70 Fax: 30-64-17-49 Email: esayakro@africaonline.ci
BP 1083, Yamoussoukro Telephone: 30-64-01-00 Fax: 30-64-03-06 Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Statistique et d’Economie Appliquée Cnr Blvd François Mitterand and Blvd des Grandes Ecoles, Campus Universitaire de Cocody, 08 BP3, Abidjan 08 Telephone: 22-44-08-40 Fax: 22-44-39-88 Email: ensea@ensea.ed.ci Internet: http://www.ensea.refer.ci/ Ecole Nationale des Postes et Télécommunications BP 1501, Abidjan Telephone: 21-25-54-94 Fax: 21-25-99-05 Ecole Nationale d’Administration BP V 20, Abidjan Telephone: 22-41-52-25 Fax: 22-41-49-63 Email: ena@globe.access.net
BP V 158, Abidjan Telephone: 20-37-18-23 Founded: 1975 by 17 African countries Mali Ecole Centrale pour l'Industrie, le Commerce et l'Administration (ECICA) Medina-Coura • Bamako B.P. 1828 • Bamako
410, Avenue van Vollenhoven • Bamako B.P. 242 • Bamako
BP 242, Bamako Telephone: 222-21-47
BP 242, Bamako Telephone: 222-21-47
Ecole Normale Supérieure BP 241, Bamako Telephone: 222-21-89 Institut Polytechnique Rural de Katibougou BP 6, Koulikoro Telephone: 226-20-12 Institut de Productivité et de Gestion Prévisionnelle BP 1300, Bamako Telephone: 222-55-11
Africa, Arab States Ecole Supérieur pour l' Enseignement Technique (ESET)
P.O. Box 986 • Mouakchott Ecole Nationale d’Administration BP 664, Nouakchott Niger Lycée Technique Dan Kassawa B.P. 73 • Maradi
B.P. 11091 • Niamey Ecole Nationale d’Administration du Niger BP 542, Niamey Telephone: 72-31-83
Technical and Industrial High School Maurice Delafosse Lycée technique industriel Maurice Delafosse c/o Secrétariat Commission Nationale pour l'UNESCO 87, Rue Carnet x Bayeux • Dakar B.P. 4004 • Dakar Ecole Nationale d’Administration du Sénégal BP 5209, Dakar
Ecole Nationale d’Economie Appliquée BP 5084, Dakar/Fann Telephone: 824-79-28 Ecole Inter-Etats des Sciences et Médecine Vétérinaires (EISMV) BP 5077, Dakar Telephone: 865-10-08 Fax: 825-42-83 Email: mariamd@eismv.refer.sn Internet: http://www.refer.sn/sngal_ct/edu/eismv/eismv.htm Founded in 1968, it represents 13 French-speaking African countries. Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Agriculture BP A 296, Thiès Telephone: 951-12-57 Fax: 951-15-51 Email: ensath@sentoo.sn Internet: http://www.refer.sn/ensa/accueil.htm Ecole Supérieure Polytechnique BP 5085, Dakar Telephone: 825-08-79 Fax: 825-55-94 Email: esp@ucad.sn Internet: http://www.esp.sn/ Institut de Technologie Alimentaire BP 2765, Hann, Dakar Telephone: 832-00-70 Fax: 832-32-95 Email: ita@metissacana.sn Internet: http://ita.sn/ Togo Lycée d'Enseignement Technique et Professionnel (LETP) de Lomé Route de Kpalimé • Lomé B.P. 1337 • Lomé
BP 401, Kpalimé Ecole Africaine des Métiers d’Architecture et d’Urbanisme BP 2067, Lomé Telephone: 221-62-53 Fax: 222-06-52 Ecole Nationale d’Administration Ave de la Libération, Lomé Telephone: 221-21-30 Fax: 221-35-29 Yüklə 1,63 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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