James mark mbilinyi a dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of masters in project management of the open univers

2.3.7.1 Daily Working Hours

Compressing the work week into fewer longer shifts (e.g. 12-hour instead of 8-hour shifts) tends to be popular with workers, who appreciate the extended periods of time off and the reduced number of commutes. However, longer shifts require the work effort to be sustained over an extended period without substantial rest. This could, in theory, result in fatigue accumulating to unsafe levels towards the end of the shift.

2.3.7.2 Health, well-being and Satisfaction

The lack of a clear and consistent association between compressed work weeks and sleep problems is paralleled by a lack of evidence linking them with negative physical and psychological health outcomes. Indeed, some studies have reported positive changes in health outcomes associated with longer shifts. However, in many cases the comparisons between longer and shorter shift durations were confounded by other variations in other schedule characteristics (e.g. speed of shift rotation, shift change-over times). It seems likely that the relatively benign effects of compressed work weeks on health are contingent upon well-designed schedules that involve rapidly rotating shifts. Negative health outcomes are most likely to be associated with extended shifts in combination with either high work demands (e.g. Iskra-Golec et al., 1996) or regular overtime (e.g. Caruso, Lusk and Gillespie, 2004). Such schedules are likely to maximize the mismatch between need and opportunity for recovery.
A further caveat to the apparently benign impact of extended shifts is that because employees often tend to prefer working fewer longer shifts each week, this may bias the reporting of health problems in favour of such working time arrangements. In this vein, it is interesting to note that two studies whose methodologies were less likely to alert respondents to the comparative nature of the research (Martenset al., 1999; Yamada et al., 2001) both found that compressed work weeks had a negative impact on health. Positive attitudes towards compressed work weeks may explain why such schedules have been linked to improved rates of staff turnover, while the majority of studies find that absenteeism rates are unaffected (Tucker, 2006).

There is some evidence from studies of nurses of an association between extended shifts and incidence of musculoskeletal disorders (Lipscomb et al., 2002; Trinkoff et al, 2006). Trinkoff et al. reported that, with the exception of back disorders, the associations were largely explained by physical demands.

2.3.8 Occupational Health & Safety Challenges in Construction Sites in Tanzania

In construction industry, there are standards, conventions and directives, but none is meticulously adhered to as experienced daily by contractors, employers and even clients. This situation leads to occupational diseases and accidents, injuries, damage, loss of money, time and materials (URT, CRB, 2001).
The statistics available in Tanzania show that accidents from construction industry rank high and hundreds of millions of Tanzanian shillings are spent annually for compensation and treatment of occupational related accidents and diseases. Safe construction techniques and good form of work organization reduce/eliminate accident risks, enabling speedy construction completion and better return (URT, CRB, 2001).
It is from this line of thought; the Contractors Registration Board (CRB) was established by the act of Parliament No.17 of 1997 as amended in 2008. The Board is a Regulatory body charged with responsibility for registration, regulation and development of Contractors have consistently argued for genuine and fundamental revolution in construction industry to improve safety and health. Such an improvement is possible only if everybody from drafting, study and organization of work right up to the execution of the construction project is fully aware of the importance of safety and health at work (URT, CRB, 2001).
Construction buyers are rapidly discovering the economic value to them of hiring contractors with good safety records. This, in turn, has motivated many construction chief executives to establish a goal of ‘zero accidents’ as a cornerstone of their companies’ culture. A goal of zero accidents then becomes the focus for continuous efforts to improve all aspects of construction safety management within the firm (Raymond, et al, 1993). The construction industry business in Tanzania like in other countries cannot be tackled effectively without harnessing of the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS), to safeguard the health of the workers and the entire community. Unfortunately in this Industry, assessment on the impacts of such developments to the workers, surrounding environment and the community are rarely considered (Mwombeki, 2005). Outdated Labour legislations should be reviewed to cater for the current needs and realities in the construction Industry.
Law enforcement from the relevant Government Institutions both at central and local level including provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Programs in construction sites should be strengthened. The paper concentrates on the status of safety and health for the workers at construction sites, efforts so far being done by the Government Institutions in shaping construction industry and challenges to be faced to meet the required standards. It is expected that this will open a fruitful discussion to a way forward (Mwombeki, 2005). Naturally, the effect of construct ion on Safety, Occupational Health and the surrounding environment would vary from particular operations starting with extraction of building materials from quarries and methods by which the extraction is occurring, transportation, preparation of building materials at site and construction of works processes (Mwombeki, 2005). In the Civil and building construction works which involve excavation, and/or demolition, concrete work, painting, roofing, operation of machines, plant and equipment, use of hand tools and many other operations call for attention from relevant authorities, regulatory bodies, societies, scientists, professionals and businessmen to establish safety and health management programs and laws governing construction works activities (Mwombeki, 2005). Unfortunately, there have been little efforts put into practice to ensure safety and health of workers and the entire community. Inspection of the construction sites for the past five years and Base line study carried by the Contractors Registration Board (CRB) on conditions of Safety and Health in Tanzania revealed that amongst other short falls noted, the situation, provision and use of safety gear during construction works was appalling (Mwombeki, 2005).
Further, key players that include clients, consultants and contractors ignore inclusion of safety provision during inception stage through tendering, in which all elements connected to safety measures are disregarded on the grounds of cutting cost (Mwombeki, 2005). In the process of carrying out its regulatory functions, the Board has learnt that majority of local and few foreign contractors are not taking the issue Health and Safety and provision of PPEs seriously. For instance, inspection of construction sites by CRB during year 2001 and 2002 revealed that, out of 83 sites inspected year 2001, 54 (66%) did not provide safety gear, while out of 308 sites inspected year 2002,193 (63 %) sites did not provide safety gear to the workers. Either, the 3% range between the two years shows that despite the Board’s efforts to enforce the provision and use of PPE, the problem is still serious. The snag is, even in some cases where contractors provide safety gear especially the helmets, not all workers do use them (Mwombeki, 2005). Not only that, the study conducted by CRB in collaboration with OSHA in 2001 revealed that at least about 50% of the company directors interviewed have knowledge of PPE in construction, while site supervisors, skilled, semi and unskilled workers have little knowledge and consider PPE issue less important. This situation creates vacuum for the company directors to disregard the safety issue to workers all together, whereby in some cases it has gone sour to the extent of not putting in place measures to prevent accidents, or reporting to relevant authorities in case of occurrence of fatal accidents(Mwombeki, 2005). It should be realized that implementation of safety and occupational health in construction works is not only for compliance purposes. Provision of H&S policies/programs such as workers welfare arrangements, clear and agreeable compensation plans, good working tools, conducive working environment and use of safety gear, has positive result in the productivity for the company, hence increase profit. Long-term indicators have it that, lack of H& policies and programs not only will affect the company dividend but the worker, family and the community (Mwombeki, 2005)