West Coast Publishing Ocean 2014 affirmative page

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Exploration- Sonar

Ocean exploration uses high powered sonar to penetrate deep into the ocean

Mel Goodwin, PhD, The Harmony Project for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2009, “LEADER’S GUIDE FOR CLASSROOM EXPLORERS”, Accessed April 25, 2014, http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/edu/leadersguide/media/09whydoweexplore.pdf
On August 13, 2008, the NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer was commissioned as “America’s Ship for Ocean Exploration;” the only U.S. ship whose sole assignment is to systematically explore our largely unknown ocean for the purposes of discovery and the advancement of knowledge. The ship was originally one of the Navy’s T-AGOS (Tactical Auxiliary General Ocean Surveillance) class vessels, and as the former USNS Capable, was used to gather underwater acoustical data. To fulfill its mission, the Okeanos Explorer has specialized capabilities for finding new and unusual features in unexplored parts of Earth’s ocean, and for gathering key information that will support more detailed investigations by subsequent expeditions. These capabilities include: • Reconnaissance within a search area to locate unusual features or anomalies; • Underwater robots (remotely operated vehicles, or ROVs) that can investigate anomalies as deep as 6,000 meters; • Underwater mapping using multibeam sonar, capable of producing high-resolution maps of the seafloor to depths of 6,000 meters; and • Advanced broadband satellite communication.

Exploration- Sonar Kills Species

Oil & gas exploration uses invasive sonar which kills ocean life

Matthew Huelsenbeck, marine scientist at Oceana, February 28, 2014, “Don't let Washington hurt the whales: Column”, Accessed May 4, 2014 http://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2014/02/28/ocean-wildlife-science-marine-life-column/5843781/
For many animals, the ocean is a world of sound, not sight. Animals like whales and dolphins depend on their sensitive hearing in order to find food, navigate and survive in a murky and often dark environment. But humans are filling the ocean with sound, disrupting the lives of marine animals. The problem is only getting worse. An environmental review expected soon from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) could allow seismic testing for offshore oil and gas in a huge area of ocean from Delaware to Florida. During this process, seismic airguns would be towed behind ships, while repeatedly blasting the ocean with intense sound for days to weeks at a time. Imagine a sound so loud it needs to penetrate through the ocean, miles beneath the Earth's crust and then bounce back to the surface of the water with information about buried oil and gas. That is what seismic airgun testing does, creating one of the loudest man-made sounds in the ocean. They are loud enough to kill small animals like fish eggs and larvae at close ranges, and their acoustic footprint is enormous. Traces of the sound can cross entire ocean basins, disrupting the behavior of large animals like whales and dolphins as far as 100 miles away. The science on how sound impacts marine life is far from settled. The National Marine Fisheries Service is currently developing new guidelines to better estimate how marine mammals can experience auditory injuries or disturbances to vital behaviors from man-made sound. These guidelines have been 15 years in the making, and they are deemed a "Highly Influential Scientific Assessment" by the Office of Management and Budget. But BOEM is going rogue. They are looking to rush forward with their environmental review without using this new science because of an arbitrary political timeline. This is a big mistake. If the final review lacks these new guidelines, it will misrepresent the comprehensive impacts of the proposed seismic airgun testing, especially in terms of cumulative behavioral impacts like repeated disruptions to mating, feeding, breathing, communicating and navigating. This includes threats to the nursery of the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale, the rarest of the large whales. Because only 500 of these individuals remain, it is essential to accurately estimate and then avoid harm to them as well as to other vulnerable marine life. There is no rush to finish this environmental review or permit seismic airgun testing, since offshore drilling lease sales in the Atlantic are not available until at least 2017. Therefore, BOEM should require that the best science be incorporated before any decision about seismic airgun testing is ever made. Accurately predicting impacts to marine life is important because, in some circumstances, sound disturbances to marine mammals can turn deadly when whales or dolphins are scared into dangerously shallow areas and become stranded. For example, in 2008, a mass mortality event occurred after a geophysical contractor working for ExxonMobil Exploration and Production (Northern Madagascar) Limited used loud sonar devices, at the same intensity but different frequency as seismic airguns, to map the seafloor for good spots to drill. More than 75 melon-headed whales were scared by the wall of sound and became trapped in a shallow lagoon where they later died from exposure, dehydration and starvation. The oil and gas industry describes seismic testing as "exploration," and their friends on Capitol Hill call it "the science of discovery." But there is little left to explore or discover with seismic airguns. We already have better options. We should be exploring quieter technologies, which are already in development and would be less harmful to marine life.

Exploration- Oil (Offshore Drilling)

Exploring the ocean inevitably leads to discovering and extracting new oil reserves

Emily Atkin, journalist and reporter for Climate Progress, January 17, 2014, “Oil Companies Will Soon Use Drones To Find Deep-Sea Fossil Fuels”, Accessed April 26, 2014 http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/01/17/3178211/drones-oil-deep-sea-scotland/
When thinking about the possible abilities of unmanned flying drones, the first thing that comes to mind is probably not benefits for the fossil fuel industry. But in Scotland, that’s exactly what’s happening. According to a report in BBC news, researchers at the University of Aberdeen have developed drones that can scan rock formations underneath the ocean — in some cases, in the deep sea. The drones will be able to locate the reserves, then estimate how much they can produce by comparing them to models of fuel-producing rock formations that occur above sea levels, University of Aberdeen geoscientist John Howell said. The data collected by the drone is then used to make virtual maps of deep-sea rock formations that Howell says are accurate within less than a few millimeters. “The advantage of the drone is that it allows us to collect large volumes of data from otherwise inaccessible cliff sections in remote and often dangerous places,” Howell said. More than 20 oil companies have financed the research so far, the BBC reported, with each drone expected to cost more than $16,000 each. They are expected to be in full use by 2014. This is not the first time, however, that drones have been eyed by the energy industry. The Federal Aviation Administration in July issued an approval that paved the way for a “major energy company” to fly unmanned drones in U.S. airspace. In August, the company was revealed to be ConocoPhillips, one of the largest oil and gas exploration and production companies worldwide. Those drones were said to be used to survey ice floes and migrating whales while the company mounts oil exploration efforts. ConocoPhillips said it also expects to use the drones for emergency response, oil spill monitoring, and wildlife surveillance. Other drones have been tested or talked about for use in pipeline and wellhead inspections in remote areas.

Exploration- Natural Gas

The plan increases access to natural gas which is problematic for three reason 1) extraction process is harmful to the environment, 2) burning natural has accelerates warming, and 3) incentivizes “flaring”

Karl Henkel [Business reporter at The Detroit News ¶ Business Reporter at The Vindicator Printing company ¶ Editor-in-Chief at The South End] ¶ Natural gas industry in a crash (and burn)¶ April 18, 2012¶ http://www.vindy.com/news/2012/apr/18/crash-and-burn/
But today, natural-gas prices are below $2 per 1,000 cubic feet for the first time in a decade.¶ Gone is the prospect of gas-only exploration. The operating gas-rig count nationwide was 624 last week, the lowest weekly figure in a decade, according to Houston oil-and gas-services company Baker Hughes.¶ Gone, too, is the gaping profit margin.¶ Energy analysts estimate that $5 per 1,000 cubic feet is the profitability point for most drillers; any price less than that, coupled with a deficient way of transporting or storing, makes for an unfavorable business model.¶ “There are no hard-and-fast rules on that,” said Dan Whitten, spokesman for Americas Natural Gas Alliance. “What you’re seeing is some companies are making those decisions, and I think some of that is areas where there are only dry gas potential.”¶ Low natural-gas prices have changed the strategy for drillers in various ways.¶ First, companies such as Oklahoma City-based Chesapeake Energy Corp., a large mineral-rights holder in Ohio, has decided to back out of natural-gas plays such as the Barnett Shale in Texas and the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania.¶ The company’s rig count in the Barnett, which was 43 in 2008, is just six this year.¶ Meanwhile, the company hopes to have 40 rigs in the Utica Shale by 2015.¶ But drillers must also consider what they want to do with natural gas from current wells.¶ Storage is the most obvious option, but because of the aforementioned mild weather, there’s a surplus of natural gas, and underground storage space is now at a premium.¶ Drillers can “dial back” natural-gas production at well heads, but not nearly to the extent that it could alleviate the gas surplus.¶ That brings in another option: flaring, the process in which gas is elevated and burned.¶ The process has been used for operations reasons for years, but never to the extent it is used today.¶ In North Dakota’s oil-rich Bakken Shale, it is estimated that as much as one-third of all produced natural gas is flared. ¶ Natural gas normally accompanies oil in the production and extraction process, which means that even if drillers target oil- and wet-gas-heavy shale plays, natural-gas production still will occur.¶ That is the case in the Utica Shale, where the most heavily oil-producing well in Ohio also produced 1.5 million MCF of natural gas, albeit in just about six months’ time.¶ Chesapeake says it is prepared for Utica Shale exploration and low natural-gas prices.¶ “The purpose of flaring is to safely consume any produced gas before it has reached sufficient conditions to enter a sales pipeline,” said Pete Kenworthy, Chesapeake spokesman. “After the well is connected to the pipeline, if market circumstances warrant, we can wait to turn the well online. In similar conditions, we can also cut back on production.”¶ Environmentalists have criticized natural-gas flaring as an even worse hazard than the actual extraction process, which is done by fracking, or blasting a mix of water, chemicals and sand thousands of feet below the ground to open shale rock formations.¶ “It seems we should slow down the drilling until natural-gas prices rise so that it becomes a smart business model,” said Vanessa Pesec, president of the Network for Oil and Gas Accountability.¶ “[Flaring] contributes to organic compounds in the air that will affect everyone’s health and greenhouse gases,” she added.

Exploration/ Production (Oil/Gas)- Noise Pollution

Ocean oil extraction causes mass noise pollution

Michael Stocker, Executive Director of Ocean Conservation Research, Accessed April 26, 2014, “Seafloor fossil fuel processing”, Accessed April 26, 2014, http://ocr.org/portfolio/seafloor-fossil-fuel-processing/
As fossil fuel exploration and production moves into ever deeper waters, developing technologies are moving much of the processing down to the sea floor. Hydrocarbon deposits are not simple pools of oil or pockets of gas; rather they are typically an untidy mix of oil, gas, brine, and solids. These need to be separated, the useful product extracted and the waste products dealt with in some manner. Deposits are also often under enormous pressures. The wellhead pressure of the BP-Horizon disaster was in excess of 13,000 psi (and why stopping the flow was difficult). Handling multi-phase materials (solids, liquids, and gasses) at enormous pressures is not a formula for “quiet.” Equipment placed on the seafloor to handle the tasks of separation, reinjection, and flow control all produce some attendant noises. While none of these processes have yet been characterized or measured, seafloor equipment is being deployed that are akin to setting up small cities on the seabed. If these were in an airborne environment the noises would be attenuated within a reasonable distance. That they are in the sea means that whatever noises they generate will be heard at far greater distances.

Ships- Gotta Build More

These are not enough existing ships, the plan requires building mores ships and water vehicles for exploration

MechE, The Ocean Engineering and Technology , MIT based technology and environment organization, Accessed April 17, 2014, “Ocean Science & Engineering,” April 17, 2014, http://meche.mit.edu/research/ocean/, Accessed April 17, 2014
Ocean Engineering and Technology, which merged with MechE in 2005, is focused on four research areas: acoustics, hydrodynamics, structures and structural dynamics, and design and marine robotics. Expanding those categories - and mindful of the fact that ocean processes and marine systems are almost universally complex and therefore require interdisciplinary efforts - the ocean engineering program at MIT, like an octopus, has eight research "tentacles": Exploring the ocean environment - We know more about the back side of the moon than about the lowest depths of the oceans. Exploring the ocean environment requires the development of networks of unmanned underwater vehicles and of specialized sensors for gathering data on ocean chemistry and biology. Ocean acoustics and sonar systems - Acoustical methods are the primary means for sensing the oceans, as well as for antisubmarine and mine detection for national defense. Sonar technology enables long-distance observations in the ocean and requires deep knowledge of both acoustics and signal processing. Hydrodynamics and free-surface waves - Ships must be able to run in both calm seas and hurricane-force conditions. Since marine transportation supports 95% of the world's commerce, it is critical to understand the impact of free-surface gravity waves. Several of our faculty have participated in America's Cup races. Energy - The advent of fast, high-voltage, high-power semiconductor switching devices is revolutionizing the commercial marine industry, while all-electric architectures hold many advantages for military ships, which have more demanding requirements.

Ships- Burn Dirty Fuel

Ships are a key pollution and warming internal link- they burn the dirtiest fuels and are larger proximate cause

What’s Your Impact?, A registered non-profit organization that was formed by a group of international environmental activists and is now based in Montreal, Canada, 2014, “WHAT ARE THE MAIN SOURCES OF CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS?”, Accessed April 25, 2014, http://www.whatsyourimpact.org/co2-sources.php
The transportation sector is the second largest source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. Transporting goods and people around the world produced 22% of fossil fuel related carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. This sector is very energy intensive and it uses petroleum based fuels (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc.) almost exclusively to meet those needs. Since the 1990s, transport related emissions have grown rapidly, increasing by 45% in less than 2 decades. Road transport accounts for 74% of this sector's carbon dioxide emissions. Automobiles, freight and light-duty trucks are the main sources of emissions for the whole transport sector and emissions from these three have steadily grown since 1990. Apart from road vehicles, the other important sources of emissions for this sector are marine shipping and global aviation. Marine shipping produces 14% of all transport carbon dioxide emissions. While there are a lot less ships than road vehicles used in the transportation sector, ships burn the dirtiest fuel on the market, a fuel that is so unrefined that it can be solid enough to be walked across at room temperature. Because of this, marine shipping is responsible for over 1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions. This is more than the annual emissions of several industrialized countries (Germany, South Korea, Canada, UK, etc.) and this sector continues to grow rapidly.

Development- General

Human development of the ocean risks mass ecosystem harm—human intervention disrupts in many ways

Environmental News Service, environmental news organization, February 18, 2014, “Deep Oceans Need ‘Stewardship’ to Prevent Industrial Damage”, Accessed May 6, 2014, http://ens-newswire.com/2014/02/18/deep-oceans-need-stewardship-to-prevent-industrial-damage/
The deep ocean is Earth’s least explored environment, but that is rapidly changing. Scientists are calling for a new stewardship ethic as technological advances open the ocean deeps to the extraction of oil and gas, minerals and precious metals, and the dwindling supply of land-based materials creates economic incentives for deep sea industrialization. The deep sea holds a nearly infinite amount of genetic diversity, some of which could provide novel materials or future therapeutics to treat human diseases, but if not protected, these could be disturbed or lost before humans discover them. “We’re really in the dark when it comes to the ecology of the deep sea,” said Linwood Pendleton, director of the Ocean and Coastal Policy Program at the Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions at Duke University. “We know a lot about a few places, but nobody is dealing with the deep sea as a whole, and that lack of general knowledge is a problem for decision-making and policy.” Pendleton spoke at the symposium “Deep Ocean Industrialization: A New Stewardship Frontier” held Sunday at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Chicago. Cindy Lee Van Dover, director of the Duke University Marine Laboratory, and Lisa Levin, a biological oceanographer at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego, joined Pendleton and other scientists in calling for a stewardship approach to deep sea development. “It is imperative to work with industry and governance bodies to put progressive environmental regulations in place before industry becomes established, instead of after the fact,” Van Dover said. “One hundred years from now, we want people to say ‘they got this right based on the science they had, they weren’t asleep at the wheel.’” Lisa Levin, a biological oceanographer at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, believes the vital functions provided by the deep sea, from carbon sequestration to nurturing fish stocks, are key to the health of the planet. As the human population has more than doubled in the past 50 years, demand for food, energy, and raw materials from the sea has risen with it, observed Levin, who has conducted research on the deep sea for more than 30 years. “At the same time, human society has undergone tremendous changes and we rarely, if ever, think about these affecting our ocean, let alone the deep ocean,” said Levin. “But the truth is that the types of industrialization that reigned in the last century on land are now becoming a reality in the deep ocean.” “Vast tracts of deep seabed are now being leased in order to mine nodules, crusts, sulfides, and phosphates rich in elements demanded by our advanced economy,” she said. At the same time, rising carbon dioxide emissions are exposing deep-sea ecosystems to additional stress from climate change impacts that include warmer temperatures, altered food supplies, and declining pH and oxygen levels. As humans ramp up exploitation of deep-sea fish, energy, minerals, and genetic resources, a new “stewardship mentality” across countries, economic sectors, and disciplines is required, Levin said, for the future health and integrity of the deep ocean.

Development- Oil (Offshore Drilling)

Offshore drilling destroys the environment- laundry list of reasons

Jennifer Horton, How Stuff Works contributing writer, B.S. in environmental studies, Accessed April 16, 2014, “Why is offshore drilling so controversial?,” http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/offshore-drilling-controversy2.htm, accessed April 16, 2014
Any time oil drilling is mentioned, you know there's going to be talk of its environmental impacts. When it comes to offshore oil drilling, that talk is even more heated, since you're not just digging underground but also thousands of feet underwater. Whenever oil is recovered from the ocean floor, other chemicals and toxic substances come up too -- things like mercury, lead and arsenic that are often released back into the ocean. In addition, seismic waves used to locate oil can harm sea mammals and disorient whales. ExxonMobil recently had to suspend exploration efforts near Madagascar after more than 100 whales beached themselves [source: Nixon]. The infrastructure required to drill wells and transport offshore oil can be equally devastating. A series of canals built across Louisiana wetlands to transport oil has led to erosion. Along with the destruction of the state's marshland caused by drilling efforts, the canals have removed an important storm buffer, possibly contributing to the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina. The petrochemical plants built nearby add to the negative effects [source: Jervis].

Development- Oil (Offshore Drilling)

Ocean exploration would lead to discovering more oil reserves- offshore drilling would occur

World Ocean Review, German oceanic analysis organization, Accessed April 17, 2014, “Living with the oceans. – A report on the state of the world's oceans,” http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/energy/fossil-fuels/, Accessed April 17, 2014
The future of oil lies in our oceans Since industrial oil extraction began in the mid-19th century, 147 billion tonnes of oil have been pumped from reserves around the world – half of it during the past 20 years. In 2007 alone, oil consumption worldwide reached a total of about 3.9 billion tonnes. There is no doubt that extraction will soon be unable to keep pace with annually increasing needs. Experts anticipate that in the next 10 years so-called “peak oil” will be reached, the point at which the world’s oil supplies go into irreversible decline. Currently the conventional oil reserves – i.e. those which can be recovered easily and affordably using today’s technology – are estimated to be a good 157 billion tonnes. Of this amount, 26 per cent (41 billion tonnes) are to be found in offshore areas. In 2007 1.4 billion tonnes of oil, the equivalent of about 37 per cent of annual oil production, was derived from the ocean. The proportion of offshore production is therefore already relatively high. The most productive areas are currently the North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean off Brazil and West Africa, the Arabian Gulf and the seas off South East Asia. For some years now the trend has been towards drilling in deeper and deeper water. In 2007 oil was extracted from 157 fields at depths of more than 500 metres. In 2000 there were only 44 such fields. Of these, 91 per cent are situated in the so-called Golden Triangle in the Atlantic between the Gulf of Mexico, Brazil and West Africa. While the output of the relatively shallow waters of the North Sea (average depth 40 metres) will reduce in the coming years, production is likely to increase elsewhere, particularly in the Golden Triangle, off India, in the South China Sea and the Caspian Sea off Kazakhstan. The deeper marine areas therefore harbour additional potential for the future. Experts estimate that the offshore trend will accelerate as oil becomes increasingly scarce. The downside here is that extraction is complex and expensive. For instance, extraction from fields at great depths requires floating production and drilling vessels, or pumping stations permanently mounted on the ocean bed. >

Geothermal

Geothermal energy development hurts the environment is a laundry list of ways

NewZealand.gov, Official website of the government of New Zealand, July 12, 2013, “Story: Geothermal energy Page 5 – Effects on the environment,” http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/geothermal-energy/page-5, Accessed April 17, 2014
Depletion of resources The process of extracting geothermal fluids (which include gases, steam and water) for power generation typically removes heat from natural reservoirs at over 10 times their rate of replenishment. This imbalance may be partially improved by injecting waste fluids back into the geothermal system. Damage to natural geothermal features Natural features such as hot springs, mud pools, sinter terraces, geysers, fumaroles (steam vents) and steaming ground can be easily, and irreparably, damaged by geothermal development. When the Wairākei geothermal field was tapped for power generation in 1958, the withdrawal of hot fluids from the underground reservoir began to cause long-term changes to the famous Geyser Valley, the nearby Waiora Valley, and the mighty Karapiti blowhole. The ground sagged 3 metres in some places, and hot springs and geysers began to decline and die as the supply of steaming water from below was depleted. In Geyser Valley, one of the first features to vanish was the great Wairākei geyser, which used to play to a height of 42 metres. Subsequently, the famous Champagne Pool, a blue-tinted boiling spring, dwindled away to a faint wisp of steam. In 1965 the Tourist Hotel Corporation tried to restore it by pumping in some three million litres of water, but to no avail. Geyser Valley continued to deteriorate, and in 1973 it was shut down as a tourist spectacle. This story has been repeated many times where there has been geothermal development. Subsidence Extracting geothermal fluids can reduce the pressure in underground reservoirs and cause the land to sink. The largest subsidence on record is at Wairākei, where the centre of the subsidence bowl is sinking at a rate of almost half a metre every year. In 2005 the ground was 14 metres lower than it was before the power station was built. As the ground sinks it also moves sideways and tilts towards the centre. This puts a strain on bores and pipelines, may damage buildings and roads, and can alter surface drainage patterns. Polluting waterways Geothermal fluids contain elevated levels of arsenic, mercury, lithium and boron because of the underground contact between hot fluids and rocks. If waste is released into rivers or lakes instead of being injected into the geothermal field, these pollutants can damage aquatic life and make the water unsafe for drinking or irrigation. A serious environmental effect of the geothermal industry is arsenic pollution. Levels of arsenic in the Waikato River almost always exceed the World Health Organisation standard for drinking water of 0.01 parts per million. Most of the arsenic comes from geothermal waste water discharged from the Wairākei power station. Natural features such as hot springs are also a source of arsenic, but it tends to be removed from the water as colourful mineral precipitates like bright red realgar and yellowy green orpiment. Air emissions Geothermal fluids contain dissolved gases which are released into the atmosphere. The main toxic gases are carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Both are denser than air and can collect in pits, depressions or confined spaces. These gases are a recognised hazard for people working at geothermal stations or bore fields, and can also be a problem in urban areas. In Rotorua a number of deaths have been attributed to hydrogen sulfide poisoning, often in motel rooms or hot-pool enclosures. Carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas, contributing to potential climate change. However, geothermal extraction releases far fewer greenhouse gases per unit of electricity generated than burning fossil fuels such as coal or gas to produce electricity.

Tourism

Tourism concentrates people in the most environmentally sensitive areas destroying the environment

World Wildlife Foundation, Environmental advocacy organization, Accessed April 17, 2014, “Coastal development problems: Tourism,” http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/tourism/tourism_pressure/, Accessed April 17, 2014
Massive influxes of tourists, often to a relatively small area, have a huge impact. They add to the pollution, waste, and water needs of the local population, putting local infrastructure and habitats under enormous pressure. For example, 85% of the 1.8 million people who visit Australia's Great Barrier Reef are concentrated in two small areas, Cairns and the Whitsunday Islands, which together have a human population of just 130,000 or so. Tourist infrastructure In many areas, massive new tourist developments have been built - including airports, marinas, resorts, and golf courses. Overdevelopment for tourism has the same problems as other coastal developments, but often has a greater impact as the tourist developments are located at or near fragile marine ecosystems. For example: mangrove forests and seagrass meadows have been removed to create open beaches tourist developments such as piers and other structures have been built directly on top of coral reefs nesting sites for endangered marine turtles have been destroyed and disturbed by large numbers of tourists on the beaches Careless resorts, operators, and tourists. The damage doesn't end with the construction of tourist facilities. Some resorts empty their sewage and other wastes directly into water surrounding coral reefs and other sensitive marine habitats. Recreational activities also have a huge impact. For example, careless boating, diving, snorkeling, and fishing have substantially damaged coral reefs in many parts of the world, through people touching reefs, stirring up sediment, and dropping anchors. Marine animals such as whale sharks, seals, dugongs, dolphins, whales, and birds are also disturbed by increased numbers of boats, and by people approaching too closely. Tourism can also add to the consumption of seafood in an area, putting pressure on local fish populations and sometimes contributing to overfishing. Collection of corals, shells, and other marine souvenirs - either by individual tourists, or local people who then sell the souvenirs to tourists - also has a detrimental effect on the local environment. Floating towns The increased popularity of cruise ships has also adversely affected the marine environment. Carrying up to 4,000 passengers and crew, these enormous floating towns are a major source of marine pollution through the dumping of garbage and untreated sewage at sea, and the release of other shipping-related pollutants.