Nabokov, Nicolas [Nikolay]

(ii) Tablatures for plucked string instruments.

Petrucci’s early 16th-century publications include four books in so-called Italian lute tablature (1507–8), of which the second gives rules for playing from the tablature, evidently for the benefit of performers without knowledge of musical theory or notation. The printing of Italian tablatures continued until 1616; manuscript Italian lute tablatures are attested until the mid-17th century. The principles on which Petrucci’s tablatures rest remained fundamental to Italian lute tablature: six lines of a ‘staff’ represent the six courses of the lute, with the course lowest in pitch at the top. Numerals placed on the lines then indicate the fret to be stopped on the relevant course, zero being used for open strings, and rhythm signs placed above the ‘staff’ indicate the durations of the shortest notes within the texture at any point (see Tablature, fig.5). These rhythm signs no doubt derive from mensural note shapes but lack the note heads; they were joined with beams as early as the first half of the 16th century. The rhythm signs appear in Petrucci’s prints above each note or chord, but even in the early 16th century the notation is sometimes simplified by omitting rhythm signs unless there is a change in note value. The system of rhythm signs normally precludes the specification of simultaneous notes of different durations, but some tablatures employ a cross or sharp-like symbol after numerals to indicate that the note in question is to be prolonged beyond the next note or chord (e.g. fig.135, from Antonio Rotta, Intabolatura de lauto, 1546); this device also occurs in German tablature (e.g. Judenkünig, 1523). Normally these Italian tablatures are accommodated on a single ‘staff’; a vocal part, if included, is usually but not invariably notated mensurally on a separate staff. Spinacino occasionally placed even the upper voice of a lute piece on a separate staff for the sake of convenience. (For another example of Italian lute tablature, see fig.120).

A similar tablature notation was used in Spain for the vihuela. In the earliest surviving example, Luis de Milán’s El maestro (1536; see Tablature, fig.6), and according to Bermudo in other 16th-century Spanish vihuela music the sequence of courses is reversed, so that the highest-sounding course is represented by the top line. Normally, however, Spanish practice and Italian correspond in this respect. Milán and others used complete note shapes for rhythm signs, in a manner otherwise similar to Italian practice; vocal lines are occasionally included in the tablature staff and distinguished from the instrumental accompaniment by being notated in red (fig.136), or (Esteban Daza, 1576, the latest known source) with dots above the numerals for alignment.

The series of printed French lute tablatures, like the Italian, has as one of its earliest examples a publication giving instructions for beginners in playing from tablature: Attaingnant’s Très briefve et familière introduction (1529: see Sources of lute music, fig.3), published only a few months after his Dixhuit basses dances, is the earliest surviving source. The ‘three short rules’ of the Introduction establish the principles found in later French tablatures. The chief differences from Italian lute tablature lie in the use of five rather than six lines in the staff, even though there are already six courses, the sixth being given a ‘leger line’ when necessary; the arrangement of the lines with the highest-sounding course represented by the top rather than the bottom line; and the use of an alphabetical sequence of letters, rather than numerals, for the frets, with ‘a’ for open strings. Rhythm signs generally correspond with those of Italian lute tablature; fingering is indicated by dots (see fig.137), later by numerals. Other later developments in French lute tablature include the adoption of a six-line staff; this is used in isolation in an Attaingnant publication of 1530, but not generally adopted until after the publication of the Pratum musicum of Emanuel Adriaenssen in 1584, and then used almost without exception. Various expedients were adopted to notate up to two extra bass courses before the end of the century, and further bass courses introduced during the 17th century and played as open strings (see Tablature, fig.7; Sources of lute music, fig.8). For details of other subsidiary signs in 17th-century French lute tablatures see Lute, §6.

French lute tablature declined in popularity in France from the early 18th century but had spread to England, the Netherlands, Germany and elsewhere, and it persisted especially in Germany, where French tablatures continued to be printed until 1771 and to be produced in manuscript until the 1790s. Music for other string instruments such as cittern, bandora, mandore, mandolin, colascione and angélique, was notated in tablatures of this kind, though sometimes with fewer lines if the instrument had fewer courses than the lute.

Before the introduction of French lute tablature to Germany, lutenists there had used a German tablature, said by Agricola to have been invented by the blind 15th-century organist Conrad Paumann. The first surviving printed sources of this tablature are in Virdung’s Musica getutscht (1511; see Tablature, fig.4) and Schlick’s Tabulaturen (1512), and German tablature persisted for about a century, when it was finally superseded by the French tablature, which had first appeared in German prints during the 1590s. German lute tablature is based on a five-course lute, but early sources are for six-course instruments: the frets of the top five strings are designated by letters of the alphabet, supplemented with a few other symbols, reading across the first frets of all five courses, then across the second frets and so on rather than by a series of symbols repeated for each course. Thus each fret on the instrument has a unique symbol; the necessity for a staff in the French or Italian manner is eliminated, at the cost of increased complexity in the notation. The lowest course, presumably added after the establishment of the notation, is assigned a series of letters independent of the rest of the notation. Open strings are shown by numerals for each course (fig.138; see Sources of lute music, fig.2).

Guitar music from around 1550 is notated in either Italian or French lute tablature; as in tablatures for other instruments, the number of staff-lines varies according to the number of courses. 17th-century guitar tablatures developed features of their own, no doubt because the constant repetition of chords prompted an abbreviated notation. Of the two principal methods the Italian, attested from 1606, uses capital letters to represent single chords (see Tablature, fig.8), and the Spanish, attested from 1626, uses numerals for the same purpose (fig.139). These abbreviated systems were used at times in combination with the earlier lute notation (for further details see Wolf, ii, §I, chap.3). Tablatures for guitar remained in use until the late 18th century, when they yielded to ordinary mensural notation on a single staff, written an octave higher than sounding (fig.140).

For much of the 20th century tablatures of a new type were in use for the guitar and ukelele in popular music, with a grid of six vertical and four horizontal lines (guitar) or four vertical and four horizontal (ukelele), providing a schematic picture of the fingerboard; dots represent the positions of the fingers (fig.141). This tablature chord notation, like the abbreviated representation of chords by capital letters (an alternative to it: see §4(viii) above), lacks any indication of rhythm within the duration of each chord, which is to be supplied by the performer from his knowledge of the style. Some 20th-century guitar music, mostly of a popular nature in the so-called ‘finger-picking’ styles, uses another type of tablature notation, closer to the lute tablatures of the Renaissance. Many publications of the 1960s and 70s reflect this notation. A six-line staff is used, corresponding to the strings of the instrument; as in French lute tablature the top line represents the string of highest pitch, and as in Spanish vihuela tablature numerals are the basis of the notation. Time signatures, bar-lines and so on are as in staff notation; the letters ‘TAB’, written vertically, often replace a clef, presumably for ready identification of the tablature when both staff and tablature notation appear in the same book. Otherwise there is no standard practice: the numerals in some tablatures represent the frets, in others the fingering, the notes being identified in some other way (e.g. by capital letters for chords). Rhythm signs are freely used: a vertical or diagonal dash for a crotchet, and stems (without note heads) with flags and beams as in staff notation for quavers, semiquavers and so on. Part-writing may be specified far more precisely in this tablature than in any Renaissance one (see fig.142). Special signs are used for ornaments and other effects.

Harp tablatures are also attested from the late Middle Ages, and Spanish vihuela tablature was intended also for the harp. Irish manuscripts have various notational systems, perhaps for harp music; one from the Elizabethan period has various combinations of acute and grave accents, circumflexes and rhythm signs; another has a series of symbols, in part resembling those of Greek notation, representing successive notes in a diatonic series. 17th-century Welsh manuscripts, including that copied by Robert ap Huw (GB-Lbl Add.14905), contain another tablature for the harp, which like German organ tablatures uses the letter-names of the notes. It is closer than the Irish sources to other contemporary notation, being written in score with bar-lines and rhythm signs like those of other tablatures of the period (fig.143). Extravagant claims of antiquity have been made for both the Welsh and Irish tablatures and their repertories, but without firm evidence.

French and German harp music appears to have been notated in various ways: alphabetical tablature (Agricola, Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529, f.XXXII); normal mensural notation; with numerals corresponding to the strings (Mersenne, Harmonie universelle, ii, 1637, bk.3, p.171); or by lute tablature. These possibilities are not represented by surviving examples.

Notation, §III, 5: Alphabetical, numerical and solmization notations

(iii) Tablatures for other instruments.

Viol music has normally been notated in ordinary mensural notation, but tablature is occasionally encountered, mostly in didactic works. The earliest sources are German (Virdung, Musica getutscht, 1511; Agricola, Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529; Gerle, Musica teusch, 1532) and are notated in German lute tablature or other alphabetical notation (fig.144, from Agricola). In Italy viol tablature is found first in Ganassi dal Fontego’s Regola rubertina (1542), corresponding in essence to the Italian lute tablature though with modification because of the greater number of frets required (in both types of tablature single symbols, rather than numerals, were used for numbers greater than 9, in order to avoid ambiguity) and for precision of fingering. In France, in the few instances where mensural notation was not used, French lute tablature was used for viol music (fig.145), sometimes with ancillary signs for special effects, and also for music for other related instruments such as the viola bastarda. French lute tablature was also used for the English lyra viol repertory.

Modified lute tablatures of various national types were occasionally used also for violin music, but with only four staff-lines, corresponding to the strings of the instrument. In the absence of frets, the series of numerals or letters used were not bound to correspond to semitone steps: Italian violin tablatures, from Gasparo Zanetti’s Scolaro … per imparar a suonare di violino, et altri stromenti (1645; fig.146), use numerals to specify diatonic steps, with accidentals added for the semitones as in mensural notation. This notation persisted for more than a century and is still attested in Pablo Minguet y Yrol’s Academia musical (1752); comparable modifications of French lute tablature were also made, with the letters representing diatonic steps. The older lute notation based on semitone steps also continued to be used for violin music.

Wind music has nearly always been notated mensurally, but tablatures are occasionally attested, based on the positions of the fingers. A recorder tablature is found in Virdung (1511), using numerals and diacritical marks. Thomas Greeting in his Pleasant Companion (1682 edition) used a six-line staff for the six holes of the flageolet with vertical lines for covered holes, crosses for half-covered holes and commas for ornaments (fig.147); Pablo Minguet y Yrol (Academia musical, 1752) used an eight-line staff, with the spaces representing the seven holes, and full, void and half-void circles representing covered, open and half-covered holes. Other tablatures were devised for wind instruments such as the musette in 17th-century France, and tablatures have been attested for brass fanfares; numerical tablatures were used in the 19th century for the accordion and other popular instruments.

Notation, §III, 5: Alphabetical, numerical and solmization notations

(iv) Vocal notations.

Since the 16th century, periodic attempts have been made to construct simple systems of vocal notation, often based on the practice of Solmization, for the benefit of the musically uneducated. Many of these indicate pitch redundantly in two different ways: by conventional mensural notation supplemented by some alternative means of identifying the pitches, either with the letter-names of the notes or with solmization syllables; or with distinctive note shapes or numerals representing the solmization syllables. These systems multiplied from the 18th century, mainly where rapidly acquired musical literacy was sought, or in pioneering or mission areas, and are associated mainly with popular music (hymns, psalms, ballads etc.).

An attempt to develop a simplified solmization notation with numerals was made by Pierre Davantes (Pseaumes de David, … avec Nouvelle et facile methode pour chanter chacun couplet des pseaumes sans recour au premier, Geneva, 1560; see fig.148). Numerals from 1 to 9, supplemented by the letters A and B, represent the notes in an ascending sequence beginning on E, C or B (the latter either B or B depending on the hexachord); the numbers are reckoned as in the natural hexachord if written without dots, in the hard hexachord if followed by a dot and in the soft hexachord if preceded by a dot. Vertical dashes are used for rhythm signs. A simpler solmization notation was adopted in a number of psalm books published by John Day in the 1570s, with abbreviations of the solmization syllables joined redundantly to conventional notes on staves (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.; see Krummel, 1975, pp.71ff).

Specific solmization notation was uncommon in England. The Fasola solmization system, later known as ‘Lancashire sol-fa’, used a reduced series of solmization syllables; it was expounded in popular publications from the early 17th century until the late 19th, as in John Playford’s Breefe Introduction to the Skill of Musick (1654), and was normally a sight-singing system applied to music in ordinary mensural notation. In America, however, it gave rise to a number of distinctive notational systems for hymn and psalm books, beginning with that of John Tufts (An Introduction to the Singing of Psalm-Tunes, 1721; earliest extant edn., 5/1726), in which the letters M, F, S and L (for the solmization syllables Mi, Fa, Sol and La) are placed on a conventional staff, with dots for rhythm signs (two dots for a breve, one for a semibreve and none for a minim; fig.150). Comparable systems multiplied in the 19th century. In the south and mid-west USA, a number contained distinctive ‘shape-notes’ (i.e. notes of four different shapes, each representing one of the four fasola syllables); these may have first appeared in Little and Smith’s The Easy Instructor (1801), whose system eventually prevailed over other early 19th-century systems (fig.151). Such systems are known also as ‘patent’, ‘buckwheat’ or ‘figured’ notes, and the shape-notes have survived into the 20th century. (See Shape-note hymnody; also §4(iii) above.)

From the 17th century many numerical notational systems have been proposed as alternatives to or replacements for conventional mensural notation. One of the earliest was that of William Braythwaite (Siren coelestis, 1638; see Krummel, 1975, pp.100ff, including facsimiles), comprising numerals for notes and various different types of comma for rests; other early numerical systems are those of Kircher (Musurgia universalis, 1650, ii, 46ff) and Giovanni d’Avella (Regole di musica, 1657). Such systems in the 17th century and later relied mainly on numerals, with or without letters of the alphabet, and some used conventional rhythm signs to fix the durations of notes; most used the numerals to count diatonic intervals arithmetically from a given note or notes. An exception is Mersenne’s proposal (Harmonicorum libri XII, vii, 1648, pp.148ff) to represent notes by inverse intervallic ratio as calculated by the length of string required to produce the note, rather than by frequency; the basis was c', taken as an arbitrary 3600.

Rousseau, in his Projet concernant de nouveaux signes pour la musique (1742/R) and elsewhere, used the numerals 1 to 7 for the diatonic scale of C major, placed on, above or below lines to distinguish between different octaves; this notation was designed for complex pieces. A second system, for simple melodies, dispensed with lines, using dots over or under numerals to indicate a move to a higher or lower octave (shown with only the first note in the new register). Simple integers were used for time signatures, rather than conventional fractional signatures; subdivisions of a bar, if unequal, were indicated by commas and by horizontal lines over or under groups of notes, functioning like beams in mensural notation. Rhythm signs in the usual sense were thus dispensed with, as in the most influential 19th-century solmization and alphabetical notational systems. Rousseau’s notational proposals, though not widely adopted at the time, were taken up on a relatively large scale in the 19th century in France in the Galin-Paris-Chevé method, whose influence extended to other European countries (Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark and Russia).

In the English-speaking world notational systems were developed in the 19th century based on seven-syllable solmization systems, which had been advocated from the 18th century as theoretically superior to fasola. The most important of these systems was the Tonic Sol-fa system, perfected by John Curwen from a method of sight-singing. Like some of the 18th- and 19th-century American notational systems described in Marrocco (1964), Tonic Sol-fa jettisoned the staff and conventional note shapes, using instead letters as abbreviations of the syllables representing the degrees of the major scale, with changes of vowels for accidentals. The necessity for rhythm signs, found in most earlier notational systems in which conventional note shapes were abandoned, and even for time signatures, was obviated by the expedient of making the distance between symbols proportional to the duration of the notes, with dots and colons used to separate beats. The notation is supplemented in teaching with hand signs and a device known as a Modulator (see Modulator (ii)).

This economical and ingenious system was well suited to relatively uncomplicated vocal music. Associated in England at first largely with nonconformity, it was adapted for use in Germany and Poland; it was widely diffused through Christian missionary work and popular ballads (in printed popular ballads it sometimes supplements ordinary staff notation: see fig.141 above). Tonic Sol-fa has become independent of white musicians in various parts of the world; it is widely used by African musicians, for example, for vocal music, often without the precise spacing and distinctions between different octaves of 19th-century Tonic Sol-fa (fig.152). A derived notation, using the numerals from 1 to 7 (and 0 for rests) instead of the sol-fa symbols from d to t, was developed in Japan and is widely used in 20th-century printed music in China and Japan (see L.E.R. Pickens, NOHM, i, 1957, 83–104, esp. 101); bar-lines are used as in sol-fa, but bars and double bars underneath the numerals, rather than punctuation marks, show the subdivision of the bars (for a related example see fig.153).

Although Tonic Sol-fa is used by those without musical education, it should not be regarded as a simple rule-of-thumb notation like some other alphabetical notations. Helmholtz, for example, considered it superior to staff notation for theoretical reasons, believing that it was a better means of producing correct intonation from singers (see Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, Eng. trans., 1875, appx 18). Fig.154 shows Tonic Sol-fa as applied to a fairly complex tonal piece; most of the notational features are self-explanatory.

Since the late 19th century the limitations of Tonic Sol-fa have become more apparent because of its clumsiness when the music modulates rapidly and its inapplicability to non-tonal music. Notators accordingly have often preferred conventional mensural notation, which has ousted Tonic Sol-fa even from areas in which it had been well-established, such as English choral music. On the other hand, attempts to construct notational systems based on solmization with more than seven syllables to the octave have had no general success. Such systems include the Eitz method, the systems of J.L. Acheson (Douzave System of Music Notation, 1936) and of L. Benke (1967).

For the syllabic notation employed by Scottish pipers to record pipe music (‘canntaireachd’) see Scotland, §II, 6(i).

For bibliography see end of §6.

Notation, §III: History of Western notation

6. Non-mensural and specialist notations.

(i) 20th-century non-mensural notation.

Although the mensural notational system proved adaptable to the requirements of 20th-century music, there are some areas where it proved less effective. This occurred where the music makes relatively little use of notes of definite pitch or definite duration, or of traditional temperament systems. It occurred also in prescriptive notation for indeterminate music, when precise specification is at a minimum; and, perhaps paradoxically, also in descriptive notation at the other end of the spectrum of precision, when scientific accuracy of notation is required – as, for example, in ethnomusicological notations.

A move away from mensural notation occurred with so-called action notation: expansions of the verbal directions found in earlier notation, or symbols replacing them (e.g. the abbreviations for pedalling, fingering etc.) at the expense of the mensural aspects of the notation. From this, perhaps, developed the graphic notations particularly associated with indeterminacy (graphics, implicative graphics), which were used at least as early as 1950–51 (Morton Feldman, Projections). This notation is generally designed to evoke a musical response from the performer by non-specific analogy rather than by direct instruction; thus any two performances should be quite different. According to Karkoschka (Schriftbild, 1966, Eng. trans., 1972, p.77), graphic notation strives to ‘stimulate without constricting the imagination’. Theoretically, any type of visual pattern may be used, though a certain degree of influence of conventional notation often seems evident, particularly in the choice of shapes associated with articulation and dynamics, and in the idea that a score represents a graph with a pitch range as its vertical axis and a time-scale as its horizontal axis. Graphic notation may be combined with conventional notation within a single score, as in figs.155 and 156. In some cases, such as in the works of Logothetis and Cardew, particular emphasis is placed on developing the aesthetic aspects of graphic notation. The use of abstract patterns as graphics is paralleled by the use of verbal texts not as instructions but as a ‘notation’ intended to evoke a musical response (as in the Concert for Orchestra by George Brecht, whose score comprises the single word ‘exchanging’). An intermediate position between graphic and conventional notation is occupied by the so-called ‘frame’ notation, in which relatively free interpretation is permitted within certain prescribed boundaries; sections of scores in this notation may literally be notated within frames (fig.157).

Notation has sometimes been used for electronic music, although when such music is composed on tape the necessity for notation is not always present. Some pieces have been notated in order that the composer may be protected by copyright; or to provide a study score; or to provide a cue-sheet for performers when electronic music is combined with live performers. Scores of electronic music may thus be either prescriptive or descriptive, and may not always contain representations of every aspect of the music. The notation used may draw on the resources of conventional mensural notation, in so far as these are usable for the purpose, and on those of graphic notation. Proposals have been made for notational reform and notational standardization in electronic music (Fennelly, 1968).

Another area in which mensural notation is clearly inadequate is the precise recording of musical data, particularly those of non-Western music and folk music. Attempts to record music as it is being performed have been made since the mid-18th century, for example by attaching recording machines to keyboard instruments; these were termed ‘melographs’ at least from 1828, and it was hoped to record improvisations on them. One such instrument, from 1780, survives at the Deutsches Museum, Munich (inventory no.43872). Shorthand notations for recording music at speed were also devised (see §6(ii) below). No wholly satisfactory method was available until the invention of machines to record sound, and even then transcription into visual notation was seldom sufficiently precise for ethnomusicological material, even though efforts were made from the 1920s to divorce ethnomusicological transcriptions from Western mensural notation. But in the 1950s an improved Melograph (see illustrations in that article) was developed by Charles Seeger. This machine now provides immediate transcriptions of music in threefold graphic form; one section of the ‘melogram’ represents a pitch-time graph, another an amplitude-time graph and the third a timbre-time graph. The resemblance of this notation to the graphic notation described above is clear.

Unprecedented precision has also been required of notation adapted to the digital computer. If notation is to be converted into a computer programme, ambiguity and redundancy must be eliminated; such programmes have been used for the stylistic analysis, along statistical lines, of various repertories. Accordingly attempts have been made to construct methods of notation adapted to computers which lend themselves readily to transcription between mensural or other notation and a computer programme (see for example Symposium II in Brook, 1970, with details of some of the problems and proposals for solving them; see also Cole, 1974, pp.117ff).

(ii) Musical shorthand.

Before the invention of sound recording, a musical equivalent of shorthand was required. The first attempts to devise one were made in France in the early 18th century (e.g. Joseph Sauveur, Principes d’acoustique, 1701), though the earliest systems are scarcely shorthand in a practical sense since they either are alphabetical systems or draw heavily on the resources of conventional notation. As late as 1805, P.J. de La Salette claimed as a shorthand system one that required letters of the alphabet, horizontal and vertical strokes for rhythm signs and simplified signs for accidentals (Sténographie musicale).

Démotz de la Salle in the 1720s proposed signs more suitable to a shorthand system, which were capable of being rotated and reversed (Méthode de musique selon un nouveau système); they were derived from mensural notation, but later systems used simpler geometrical signs (e.g. J.L. Riom’s Sténographie musicale, 1833), dots, curved lines and so on. All the early systems used separate signs for each note, but Hippolyte Prévost attempted to overcome this drawback by a system in which complete bars could be written as single multiple signs; the system required the use of a five-line staff with two auxiliary dotted lines above and two below. A similar notation was devised to record accompanying harmonies (fig.158, from Sténographie musicale, 1833).

(iii) Notation for the blind.

Like musical shorthand, musical notation for the blind first developed in the 18th century and the first attempts at it were hampered by too close an adherence to the conventional mensural system. Rameau (Code de musique pratique, 1760), Tans’ur (Elements of Musick, 1772) and others envisaged, broadly speaking, a conventional notation placed in relief so that it could be read by touch, with note shapes somewhat altered to facilitate their recognition by touch. Several other notations for the blind were devised in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, but the most important was that devised by Louis Braille (Anaglyptographie, 1829), which departed entirely from the conventional signs. Embossed dots were arranged in two adjacent vertical rows of three each, with the upper four dots referring to pitch and the lowest two to duration (for further details of this system, see Braille notation). This has superseded all other notations for the blind; revisions of it have not all been adopted universally, and different forms are used in different places.

(iv) Cryptography.

From the 17th century at least, musical notation has occasionally been used as a secret code for conveying messages. Even earlier than that, the association of notes with solmization syllables had occasionally suggested their use as a pun, as for example in the use of an interpolated B (= fa) replacing the syllable ‘fa’ in Du Fay’s name (GB-Ob Can.misc.213); this too is a type of cryptography, and has many later parallels. Many musical codes equate single notes and note shapes arbitrarily with individual letters of the alphabet; there are German examples from the 17th century and later (e.g. Kircher, Gaspar Schott, J.B. Friderici, Michael Haydn), which are comparable to the system described in John Wilkins’s Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger (1641; see fig.159 and Krummel, 1975, p.128).

Another type of cryptography is represented by the use of motifs comprising notes whose letter-names (or letters derived from them, e.g. E = Ger. Es = S) spell words (for example Bach’s and other composers’ use of the motif B–A–C–H, that is B–A–C–B in German terminology; Schumann’s ‘Abegg’ Variations, 1830; Ligeti’s Fragment, 1961). These examples belong to the history of composition, however, rather than to that of notation.

An ambitious ‘universal’ musical language was essayed by Jean-François Sudre (Langue universelle, 1867), which was intended to express definite extra-musical ideas in a manner intelligible to all, of whatever nationality. Motifs were associated with ideas (fig.160) and were communicable through performance, notation, cheironomy and in other ways. Although the system achieved surprisingly wide acclaim in France at the time, it soon sank into oblivion.

See also Cryptography, musical.

Notation, §III: History of Western notation

BIBLIOGRAPHY

after 1500: theoretical sources

after 1500: studies

For further bibliography see Articulation and phrasing; Articulation marks; Bow; Chiavette; Computers and music; Continuo; Cryptography, musical; Dotted rhythms; Editing; Expression; Eye music; Fingering; Improvisation; Musica ficta; Notes inégales; Ornaments; Performing practice; Printing and publishing of music; Proportional notation; Rhythm; Score; Tabulature; Tempo and expression marks and Theory, theorists.

Notation, §III: History of Western notation: Bibliography

after 1500: theoretical sources

BurneyH

MersenneHU

WaltherML

A. Schlick: Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (Speyer, 1511/R; Eng. trans. 1980)

A. Schlick: Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesang und Lidlein uff die Orgeln und Lauten (Mainz, 1512/R)

P. Aaron: Thoscanello de la musica (Venice, 1523/R; rev. with suppl. as Toscanello in musica, 1529/R, 1539/R, 1562; Eng. trans. collating all edns, 1970)

M. Agricola: Musica instrumentalis deudsch (Wittenberg, 1529/R, enlarged 5/1545); Eng. trans. 1994

M. Agricola: Musica figuralis deudsch (Wittenberg, 1532/R)

S. di Ganassi dal Fontego: Opera intitulata Fontegara (Venice, 1535/R; Ger. trans., 1956; Eng. trans., 1959); ed. L. de Paolis (Rome, 1991)

S. di Ganassi dal Fontego: Regola rubertina (Venice, 1542/R); ed. W. Eggers (Kassel, 1974); Eng. trans. in JVdGSA, xviii (1981), 13–66

D. Ortiz: Trattado de glosas sobre clausulas y otros generos de puntos en la musica de violones (Rome, 1553); ed. M. Schneider (Kassel, 1967)

J. Bermudo: El libro llamado Declaración de instrumentos musicales (Osuna, 1555/R)

H. Finck: Practica musica (Wittenberg, 1556, enlarged 2/1556/R)

L. Venegas de Henestrosa: Libro de cifra nueva para tecla, harpa y vihuela (Alcalá de Henares, 1557); ed. in MME, ii (1944)

G. Zarlino: Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, rev. 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt.iii, 1968/R as The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt.iv, 1983, as On the Modes)

T. de Santa María: Arte de tañer fantasia, assi para tecla como para vihuela (Valladolid, 1565/R; Eng. trans., 1991)

T. Morley: A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke (London, 1597/R); ed. R.A. Harman (London, 1952, 2/1963/R)

G. Caccini: Le nuove musiche (Florence, 1601/2/R); ed. in RRMBE, ix (1970)

F. Bianciardi: Breve regola per imparar’ a sonare sopra il basso (Siena, 1607); ed. R. Haas, Musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge: Festschrift für Johannes Wolf, ed. W. Lott, H. Osthoff and W. Wolffheim (Berlin, 1929/R), 48ff, and V. Gibelli (Milan, 1965)

P. Cerone: El melopeo y maestro (Naples, 1613/R)

M. Praetorius: Syntagma musicum, i (Wolfenbüttel, 1614–15, 2/1615/R); ii (Wolfenbüttel, 1618, 2/1619/R; Eng. trans., 1986, 2/1991); iii (Wolfenbüttel, 1618, 2/1619/R)

A. Kircher: Musurgia universalis (Rome, 1650/R)

J. Playford: A (Breefe) Introduction to the Skill of Musick for Song and Violl (London, 1654, 12/1694/R)

C. Simpson: The Division-violist or, An Introduction to the Playing upon a Ground (London, 1659, rev. enlarged 2/1665/R as Chelys minuritionum artificio exornata, 3/1712)

C. Simpson: The Principles of Practical Musick (London, 1665, rev., enlarged 2/1667 as A Compendium of Practical Musick, 9/c1769–75); ed. P.J. Lord (Oxford, 1970)

G.M. Bononcini: Musico prattico (Bologna, 1673/R, 2/1677; Ger. trans., 1701)

T. Mace: Musick’s Monument (London, 1676); facs. with commentary and transcr. by A. Souris and J. Jacquot (Paris, 1958/R)

S. de Brossard: Dictionaire des termes grecs, latins et italiens (Paris, 1701; enlarged 2/1703/R, 3/1705 as Dictionaire de musique, contenant une explication des termes grecs, latins, italiens et françois, ed. and trans. A. Gruber, 1982)

M.P. de Montéclair: Nouvelle méthode pour apprendre la musique (Paris, 1709)

M.P. de Montéclair: Méthode facile pour apprendre à jouer du violon (Paris, 1711–12)

F. Couperin: L’art de toucher le clavecin (Paris, 1716, enlarged 2/1717/R); ed. M. Halford with Eng. trans. (New York, 1974)

G.P. Telemann: Harmonischer Gottes-Dienst, oder geistliche Cantaten (Hamburg, 1725–6); ed. G. Fock in G.P. Telemann: Musikalische Werke, ii–v (Kassel, 1953–7)

J.D. Heinichen: Der General-Bass in der Composition, oder: Neue und gründliche Anweisung (Dresden, 1728/R; partial Eng. trans., 1966)

J.-P. Rameau: Dissertation sur les différentes méthodes d’accompagnement pour le clavecin, ou pour l’orgue (Paris, 1732/R)

M.P. de Montéclair: Principes de musique (Paris, 1736/R); Eng. trans. of section on ornamentation, RRMBE, xxix–xxx (1978)

J.-J. Rousseau: Projet concernant de nouveaux signes pour la musique (Paris, 1742; repr. with Eng. trans. 1982)

J.-J. Rousseau: Dissertation sur la musique moderne (Paris, 1743)

F. Geminiani: Rules for Playing in a True Taste (London, ?1739, ?2/1745)

F. Geminiani: A Treatise of Good Taste in The Art of Musick (London, 1749/R)

F.W. Marpurg: Die Kunst das Clavier zu spielen (Berlin, 1750, rev., enlarged 4/1762/R)

F. Geminiani: The Art of Playing on the Violin (London, 1751/R); facs. ed. D.D. Boyden (London, 1952)

J.J. Quantz: Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752, 3/1789/R; Eng. trans., 1966)

J. le Rond d’Alembert: Elémens de musique, théorique et pratique (Paris, 1752/R)

C.P.E. Bach: Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (Berlin, 1753–62/R; Eng. trans., 1949)

F.W. Marpurg: Anleitung zum Clavierspielen (Berlin, 1755, 2/1765/R)

F.W. Marpurg: Handbuch bey dem Generalbasse und der Composition (Berlin, 1755–8/R, suppl., 1760/R; 2/1762/R [vol. i only]; ed. and trans. D.A. Sheldon, 1989)

J.F. Daube: General-Bass in drey Accorden (Leipzig, 1756)

L. Mozart: Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule (Augsburg, 1756/R, enlarged 3/1787/R; Eng. trans., 1939 [?1948], 2/1951/R)

F. Geminiani: The Art of Accompaniment (London, 1756–7)

J. Adlung: Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit (Erfurt, 1758/R, 2/1783)

M. Corrette: Le parfait maître à chanter (Paris, 1758, enlarged 2/1782)

N. Pasquali: The Art of Fingering the Harpsichord (Edinburgh, ?1760)

J.-P. Rameau: Code de musique pratique, ou Méthodes pour apprendre la musique (Paris, 1760/R)

J. Lacassagne: Traité général des élémens du chant (Paris, 1766/R)

J. Lacassagne: L’uni-cléfier musical (Paris, 1768)

J.P. Kirnberger: Grundsätze des Generalbasses als erste Linien zur Composition (Berlin, 1781/R)

A.E.M. Grétry: Mémoires, ou Essais sur la musique (Paris, 1789, enlarged 2/1797/R; part trans. in StrunkSR1)

D.G. Türk: Clavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Clavierspielen für Lehrer und Lernende (Leipzig and Halle, 1789, enlarged 2/1802/R; Eng. trans., 1982)

T. Busby: A Complete Dictionary of Music (London, c1801, 6/1827)

M. Clementi: Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Piano Forte (London, 1801/R, rev. 11/1826)

H.C. Koch: Musikalisches Lexikon (Frankfurt, 1802/R)

J.-J. de Momigny: Cours complet d’harmonie et de composition (Paris, 1803–6, 2/1808)

J.W. Callcott: A Musical Grammar (London, 1806, ?5/1883)

J.N. Hummel: Ausführlich theoretisch-practische Anweisung zum Piano-forte-Spiel, vom ersten Elementar-Unterrichte an bis zur vollkommensten Ausbildung (Vienna, 1828, 2/1838; Eng. trans. 1829)

C. Czerny: Vollständige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-Schule, op.500, (1838–9, Eng. trans., 1839; ed. P. Badura-Skoda, 1963)

M. Hauptmann: Die Natur der Harmonik und Metrik (Leipzig, 1853; Eng. trans., 1888)

H. von Helmholtz: Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen (Brunswick, 1862; Eng. trans. by A.J. Ellis, 1875, 6/1948 as On the Sensations of Tone)

M. Lussy: Traité de l’expression musicale (Paris, 1874, 8/1904; Eng. trans., 1885)

H. Riemann: Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik (Hamburg, 1884)

H. Riemann: System der musikalischen Rhythmik und Metrik (Leipzig, 1903)

S. Macpherson: Form in Music (London, 1908; repr. with appx 1912, 2/1915)

S. Macpherson: Studies in Phrasing and Form (London, 1911, 2/1932)

Notation, §III: History of Western notation: Bibliography

after 1500: studies

H. Bellermann: Die Mensuralnoten und Taktzeichen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1858, 2/1906, enlarged 4/1963 ed. H. Husmann)

H. Riemann: Studien zur Geschichte der Notenschrift (Leipzig, 1878/R)

H. Riemann: Die Entwickelung unserer Notenschrift (Leipzig, 1881)

H. Riemann: ‘Notenschrift und Notendruck: bibliographisch-typographische Studie’, Festschrift zur 50 jährigen Jubelfeier des Bestehens der Firma C.G. Röder (Leipzig, 1896), appx, 1–88

C.F.A. Williams: The Story of Notation (London and New York, 1903/R)

E. Praetorius: Die Mensuraltheorie des Franchinus Gafurius und der folgenden Zeit bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1905/R)

J. Hautstont: Notation musicale autonome (Paris, 1907)

H. Riemann: Kompendium der Notenschriftkunde, Kirchenmusik, iv–v, ed. K. Weinmann (Regensburg, 1910)

IMusSCR IV: London 1911 [incl. several articles relating to notation]

J. Wolf: Handbuch der Notationskunde (Leipzig, 1913–19/R)

K.W. Gehrkeng: Musical Notation and Terminology (New York, 1914)

A.E. Hull: Modern Harmony: its Explanation and Application (London, 1914)

A. Dolmetsch: The Interpretation of the Music of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Revealed by Contemporary Evidence (London, 1915, 2/1944/R)

R. Schwartz: ‘Zur Partitur im 16. Jahrhundert’, AMw, ii (1920), 73–8

H. Jacoby: ‘Grundlagen einer schöpferischen Musikerziehung’, Die Tat, xiii (Jena, 1921–2), 889–909; pubd separately (Karlsruhe, 1922)

J. Wolf: Musikalische Schrifttafeln (Leipzig, 1922–3, 2/1927)

J. Wolf: Die Tonschriften (Breslau, 1924)

J. Wörsching: ‘Neunhundert Jahre Notenschrift’, Die Musik, xviii (1925–6), 884–9

L. Schrade: ‘Das Problem der Lautentabulatur-Übertragung’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 357–63

O. Gombosi: ‘Bemerkungen zur Lautentabulatur-Frage’, ZMw, xvi (1934), 497–8

A. Jacob: Musical Handwriting (London, 1937, 2/1947)

J.S. Levitan: ‘Ockeghem’s Clefless Compositions’, MQ, xxiii (1937), 440–64

W. Georgii: Klaviermusik (Zurich, 1941, 3/1956) [with numerous remarks on notation]

W. Apel: The Notation of Polyphonic Music, 900–1600 (Cambridge, MA, 1942, rev. 5/1961; Ger. trans., rev., 1970), pts.i, ii

W. Tappolet: La notation musicale et son influence sur la pratique de la musique du moyen âge à nos jours (Neuchâtel, 1947)

What is Klavarskribo?, ed. Klavarscribo Institute (Slikkerveer, 1947)

J. Chailley: Les notations musicales nouvelles (Paris, 1950)

D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects and Problems of Musique Mesurée à l’Antique: the Rhythm and Notation of Musique Mesurée’, MD, iv (1950), 163–86

H.A. Chambers: Musical Manuscript (London, 1951) [reviews in MMR, lxxxi (1951), 273 only, and MT, xcii (1951), 551–2]

‘A Proposed Musical Notation’, Journal of the Franklin Institute, ccliii (Feb 1952), 125–43 [with discussions by E. Ormandy, W. Hinrichsen, E.H. Ezerman, H. Diedrichs, P. Hindemith, J.L. Bawden and P. Moon]

S. Babitz: ‘A Problem of Rhythm in Baroque Music’, MQ, xxxviii (1952), 533–65

H. Cole: ‘Some Modern Tendencies in Notation’, ML, xxxiii (1952), 243–9

V. Godjevatz: ‘New Musical Notation’, Musical Courier (1 Nov 1952) 28 only

A.D. Fokker: ‘De behoefte aan grotere nauwkeurigheid in de muzikale notatie der toonhoogte’, Mens en melodie, viii (1953), 114–16

F. Rothschild: The Lost Tradition in Music, i: Rhythm and Tempo in J.S. Bach’s Time (London, 1953); ii: Musical Performance in the Times of Mozart and Beethoven (London and New York, 1961) [see also reviews: W. Emery, ML, xxxiv (1953), 251–64, and reply, xxxv (1954), 80–88; A. Mendel, MQ, xxxix (1953), 617–30; P.H. Lang, MQ, xl (1954), 50–55]

R.T. Dart: The Interpretation of Music (London, 1954, 4/1967)

T. Feige: ‘Das Siebenliniensysteme: eine chromatische Notenschrift’, NZM, cxvi (1955), 151–4

F. Noske: ‘Two Problems in Seventeenth Century Notation (Constantijn Huygens’ “Pathodia sacra et profana”, 1647)’, AcM, xxvii (1955), 113–20; xxviii (1956), 55 only

E. Winternitz: Musical Autographs from Monteverdi to Hindemith (Princeton, 1955, enlarged 2/1965)

A. Hartmann: ‘Anregungen zu einer Reform der Notenschrift’, NZM, cxviii (1956), 50–51, 118–19

H.M. Johnson: How to Write Music Manuscript (New York, 1956)

A.B. Barksdale: The Printed Note (Toledo, OH, 1957)

C. Seeger: ‘Toward a Universal Music Sound-writing for Musicology’, JIFMC, ix (1957), 63–6

R. Fawcett: Equiton (Zurich, 1958)

C. Seeger: ‘Prescriptive and Descriptive Music-writing’, MQ, xliv (1958), 184–95

J.M. Barbour: ‘Unusual Brass Notation in the Eighteenth Century’, Brass Quarterly, ii (1959), 139–46

G.L. Houle: The Musical Measure as Discussed by Theorists from 1650 to 1800 (diss., Stanford U., 1960)

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Early Scores in Manuscript’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 126–71

G. Noll: Untersuchungen über die musikerzieherische Bedeutung Jean-Jacques Rousseaus und seiner Ideen (diss., Humboldt U., Berlin, 1960)

K. Stockhausen: ‘Musik und Graphik’, Darmstädter Beiträge zur neuen Musik, iii (1960), 5–25

L. Boehm: Modern Music Notation (New York, 1961)

F. Brenn: ‘Equiton’, SMz, ci (1961), no.2, p.78–87; no.3, p.23–7

C. Cardew: ‘Notation – Interpretation’, Tempo, no.58 (1961), 21–33

N. Cazden: ‘Forum’, JMT, v (1961), 113–28

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Zur Entstehung des modernen Taktsystems im 17. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xviii (1961), 223–40

S. Hermelink: ‘Die Tabula compositoria’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 221–30

K. Jeppesen: ‘Et par notationstekniske problemer i det 16. århundredes musik og nogle dertil knyttede jagttagelser (taktindelling–partitur)’, STMf, xliii (1961), 171–93

C. Johannis: Notenschrifteform (Stuttgart, 1961)

H. Otte: ‘Neue Notation und ihre Folgen’, Melos, xxviii (1961), 76–8

W. Steffens: ‘Entwurf einer abstrakt-temperierten Notenschrift’, NZM, cxxii (1961), 351–5

E. Karkoschka: ‘Ich habe mit Equiton komponiert’, Melos, xxix (1962), 232–9

M. Schuler: ‘Punctum, Suspirium und Bindebogen: ein Notationsproblem der deutschen Orgeltabulatur des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts’, Mf, xv (1962), 257–60

R.T. Dart, W. Emery and C. Morris: Editing Early Music: Notes on the Preparation of Printer’s Copy (London, 1963)

A. Donato: Preparing Music Manuscript (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963)

R. Donington: The Interpretation of Early Music (London, 1963, rev. 3/1974) [with much detail about notational problems]

K. Stone: ‘Problems and Methods of Notation’, PNM, i/2 (1963), 9–31

A. Tyson: The Authentic English Editions of Beethoven (London, 1963), 30 [with passing comment on early 19th-century English printed notation]

Notation neuer Musik: Darmstadt 1964 [incl.: C. Dahlhaus: ‘Notenschrift heute’, 9–34; G. Ligeti: ‘Neue Notation: Kommunikationsmittel oder Selbstzweck’, 35–50; R. Haubenstock-Ramati: ‘Notation: Material und Form’, 51–4; M. Kagel: ‘Komposition – Notation – Interpretation’, 55–63; E. Brown: ‘Notation und Ausführung neuer Musik’, 64–84; A. Kontarsky: ‘Notationen für Klavier’, 92–109; C. Caskel: ‘Notationen für Schlagzeug’, 110–16 (Eng. trans. in Percussionist, viii (1971), 80–84); see also reviews by W.-E. von Lewinski, Musica, xx (1966), 197–8, and E. Karkoschka, Melos, xxxiii (1966), 76–85]

B.S. Brook and M. Gould: ‘Notating Music with Ordinary Typewriter Characters (A Plaine and Easie Code System for Musicke)’, FAM, xi (1964), 142–59

G. von Dadelsen: ‘Über das Wechselspiel von Musik und Notation’, Festschrift Walter Gerstenberg, ed. G. von Dadelsen and A. Holschneider (Wolfenbüttel, 1964), 17–25

E. Lin: ‘The Notation for Continuous Gradual Change of Pitch’, JIFMC, xvi (1964), 107–8

W.T. Marrocco: ‘The Notation in American Sacred Music Collections’, AcM, xxxvi (1964), 136–42

H. Mayer: ‘Musikale Grafica (Actiescrift)’, Mens en melodie, xviii (1964), 276–80

G. Read: Music Notation (Boston, MA, 1964, 2/1969, rev. 3/1971)

M.D. Hastings: ‘Will “Klavarscribo” Work? New Notation Discussed at I.S.M. Conference’, MO, lxxxviii (1965), 275 only

C.M. Fuller: ‘A Music Notation Based on E and G’, JRME, xiv (1966), 193–6

H. Grüss: ‘Über Notation und Tempo einiger Werke S. Scheidts und M. Praetorius’, DJbM, xi (1966), 72–83

E. Karkoschka: Das Schriftbild der neuen Musik (Celle, 1966; Eng. trans., 1972) [see also review by K. Stone, PNM, v/2 (1966–7), 146–54]

B.L. Linger: An Experimental Study of Durational Notation (diss., Florida State U., 1966)

J. Mainka: ‘Klangaufnahme und musikalisches Schriftzeichen–Gedanken zu Notation und Tradition in der Moderne’, GfMKB, Leipzig 1966, 332–9

Standard Music Engraving Practice, ed. Music Publishers Association (New York, 1966)

G.A. O’Conner: ‘Prevailing Trends in Contemporary Percussion Notation’, Percussionist, iii/4 (1966), 61–74

‘Percussive Arts Society: Project on Terminology and Notation of Percussion Instruments’, Percussionist, iii/2–3 (1966), 47–53

L. Benke: ‘Javaslat a tizenkétfokú hangrendszer új írásmódjára’ [Proposal for a new notational system for dodecaphonic music], Magyar zene, viii (1967), 401–7

J. Chailley: La musique et le signe (Lausanne and Paris, 1967)

K. Dorfmüller: Studien zur Lautenmusik in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1967)

E. Ghent: ‘Programmed Signals to Performers’, PNM, vi/1 (1967), 96–106

M. Gould: ‘A Keypunchable Notation for the Liber Usualis’, Elektronische Datenverarbeitung, ed. H. Heckmann (Regensburg, 1967), 25–40

R. Meylan: ‘Symbolisierung einer Melodie auf Lochkarten’, Elektronische Datenverarbeitung, ed. H. Heckmann (Regensburg, 1967), 21–4

W. Reckziegel: ‘Die Notenschrift im Computer dargestellt’, SM, ix (1967), 395–406

C.A. Rosenthal: Practical Guide to Music Notation for Composers, Arrangers, and Editors (New York, 1967)

K. Roschitz: ‘New Methods of Musical Notation’, Musical Austria, iii/3 (1967)

K. Roschitz: ‘Zur Notation neuer Musik: Anmerkungen über Grundsätze, Methoden, Zeichen’, ÖMz, xx (1967), 189–205

W. Tappolet: Notenschrift und Musizieren: das Problem ihrer Beziehungen vom Frühmittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1967)

T.E. Warner: An Annotated Bibliography of Woodwind Instruction Books, 1600–1830 (Detroit, 1967)

G. Dorfles: ‘Interferenze tra musica e pittura e la nuova notazione musicale’, Quaderni della rassegna musicale, iv (1968), 1–24

J. Evarts: ’The New Musical Notation – a Graphic Art?’, Leonardo, i (1968), 405–12

B. Fennelly: A Descriptive Notation for Electronic Music (diss., Yale U., 1968)

M.V. Mathews and L. Rosler: ‘Graphical Language for the Scores of Computer-Generated Sounds’, PNM, vi/2 (1968), 92–118

A. Mendel: ‘Some Ambiguities of the Mensural System’, Studies in Music History: Essays for Oliver Strunk, ed. H.S. Powers (Princeton, NJ, 1968/R), 137–60

K. Roschitz: ‘Aspekte der Notation neuer Musik’, Wort und Wahrheit, xxiii (1968), 131–9

L. Sitsky: ‘Ferruccio Busoni’s Attempt at an Organic Notation for the Pianoforte and a Practical Adaptation of it’, MR, xxix (1968), 27–34

P. Mies: ‘Einige allgemeine und spezielle Beispiele zu Beethovens Notation’, BeJb 1969, 214–24

K. Roschitz: ‘Über neue Formen musikalischer Notation’, Beiträge 1968/69 (Kassel, 1969), 62–6

O. Baldwin and T. Wilson: ‘Musick Advanced and Vindicated’, MT, cxi (1970), 148–50

S. Bauer-Mengelberg: ‘The Ford–Columbia Input Language’, Musicology and the Computer, ed. B.S. Brook (New York, 1970), 48–52

B.S. Brook, ed.: Musicology and the Computer (New York, 1970) [incl. ‘The Plaine and Easie Code’, 53–6]

K. Haller: Partituranordnung und musikalischer Satz (Tutzing, 1970)

D.S. Prerau: Computer Pattern Recognition of Standard Engraved Music Notation (diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1970)

T. Ross: The Art of Music Engraving and Processing (Miami, 1970)

J. Wenker: ‘A Computer Oriented Music Notation Including Ethnomusicological Symbols’, Musicology and the Computer, ed. B.S. Brook (New York, 1970), 91–129

C. Wolff: ‘Arten der Mensuralnotation im 15. Jahrhundert und die Anfänge der Orgeltabulatur’, GfMKB, Bonn 1970, 609–13

D. Cantor: ‘A Computer Program that Accepts Common Musical Notation’, Computers and the Humanities, vi (1971), 103–9

T.G. Georgiades, ed.: Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins (Kassel, 1971) [incl. articles on notational problems, facsimiles etc.]

M. Hood: The Ethnomusicologist (Los Angeles, 1971)

E. Karkoschka: ‘Eine Hörpartitur elektronischer Musik’, Melos, xxxviii (1971), 468–75

E. Karkoschka: ‘Polens isomorphe Notation’, Melos, xxxviii (1971), 230–34

P. Nitsche: ‘Transponierte Notation bei Wagner: zum Verhältnis von Notation und Instrument’, Richard Wagner: Werk und Wirkung, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Regensburg, 1971), 221–36

M. Vinquist and N. Zaslaw, eds.: Performance Practice: a Bibliography (New York, 1971) [repr. from CMc (1969), no.8, pp.5–96; (1970), no.10, p.144]; suppls., CMc (1971), no.12, p.129; (1973), no.15, p.126

R. Kowal: ‘New Jazz and some Problems of its Notation: Exemplified in the Scores of Polish Jazz Composers’, Jazzforschung, iii–iv (1971–2), 180–93

J.A. Bank: Tactus, Tempo and Notation in Mensural Music from the 13th to the 17th Century (Amsterdam, 1972)

M. Bent: ‘Musica recta and musica ficta’, MD, xxvi (1972), 73–100

P. Cooke: ‘Problems of Notating Pibroch: a Study of “Maol Donn”’, Scottish Studies, xvi (1972), 41–59

F. Goebels: ‘Gestalt und Gestaltung musikalischer Grafik’, Melos, xxxix (1972), 23–34

A. Hughes: Manuscript Accidentals: Ficta in Focus, 1350–1450, MSD, xxvii (1972)

A. Logothetis: ‘Karmadharmadrama in graphischer Notation’, ÖMz, xxvii (1972), 541–6

H. Besseler and P. Gülke: Schriftbild der mehrstimmigen Musik, Musikgeschichte in Bildern, iii/5 (Leipzig, 1973)

Y. Bukspan: Towards a New System of Music Notation (Tel-Aviv, 1973)

E. Kilgore: ‘Time Signatures of the Well-tempered Clavier: their Place in Notational History’, Bach, iv/2 (1973), 3–16

A.M. Locatelli de Pérgamo: La notación de la música contemporánea (Buenos Aires, 1973)

C. Roemer: The Art of Music Copying (Sherman Oaks, CA, 1973)

A. Szentkirályi: ‘An Attempt to Modernize Notation’, MR, xxxiv (1973), 100–23

H. Cole: Sounds and Signs: Aspects of Musical Notation (London, 1974)

New Musical Notation: Ghent 1974 [Interface, iv/1 (1975)]

C. Brandt and C. Roemer: Standardized Chord Symbol Notation (Sherman Oaks, CA, 1975)

I. Darreg: ‘Xenharmonic Bulletin, No.vi: the Notation Question’, Xenharmonikôn, iv (1975)

H. Ferguson: Keyboard Interpretation from the 14th to the 19th Century: an Introduction (London,1975)

D.W. Krummel: English Music Printing 1553–1700 (London, 1975)

H. Risatti: New Music Vocabulary: a Guide to Notational Signs for Contemporary Music (Urbana, IL, 1975)

B. Boretz and E.T. Cone, eds.: Perspectives on Notation and Performance (New York, 1976)

I. Darreg: ‘Xenharmonic Bulletin, No.ix: the Calmer Mood’, Xenharmonikôn, vii–viii (1979)

D. Moroney: ‘The Performance of Unmeasured Harpsichord Preludes’, EMc, iv (1976), 143–51

Musi-graphies (Paris, 1977) [exhibition catalogue]

G. Read: Modern Rhythmic Notation (Bloomington, IN, 1978)

C. Page: ‘French Lute Tablature in the 14th Century’, EMc, viii (1980), 488–92

K. Stone: Music Notation in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1980)

C. Page: ‘The 15th-Century Lute: New and Neglected Sources’, EMc, ix (1981), 11–21

R. Rastall: The Notation of Western Music (London, 1983; rev. 2/1998)

R. Black: ‘Contemporary Notation and Performances Practice: Three Difficulties’, PNM, xxii (1983–4), 117–46

M. Bent: ‘Diatonic ficta’, EMH, iv (1984), 1–48

D.A. Byrd: Music Notation by computer (diss., Indiana U., 1984)

L. Gariépy and J. Décarie: ‘A System of Notation for Electro-acoustic Music’, Interface, xiii (1984), 1–74

H. Davies, J. Lawson and M. Regan: Eye Music: the Graphic Art of New Musical Notation (London, 1986) [exhibition catalogue]

D. Guaccero: ‘L'aléa: du son au signe graphique’, Cahiers du CIREM, xviii–xix (1990–91), 9–24

E. Blackwood and others: ‘How do you Notate your Music?’, PNM, xxix (1991), 189–96

A.M.B. Berger: Mensuration and Proportion Signs: Origins and Evolution (Oxford, 1993)

R. DeFord: ‘Tempo Relationships between Duple and Triple Time in the Sixteenth Century’, EMH, xiv (1995), 1–51

M. Bent: ‘The Early Use of the Sign ’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 199–225