Part III: The Dynamics of Arab Culture
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Part III: The Dynamics of Arab Culture National Character and Value Orientations Creative Expression: Society and Literary Orientations Arab Thought: Problems of Renewal, Modernity, and Transformation writers’ vision of social reality: harmony, conflict, alienation, class, ... writers’ vision of social reality: harmony, conflict, alienation, class, ... justice, equality, freedom, love, ... [cf. <=> value orientations] artistic styles [cf. <=> value orientations] writers’ attitude vis-à-vis the actual condition reconciliation exposure: compliance / non-confrontation / individual rebellion revolutionary change [cf. <=> value orientations] All in all: All in all: H. Barakat = anthropological / sociological / cultural approach Basic questions: How... do Arabs (as human beings)... do Arab societies... does Arab culture... react (in general) to challenges? Which patterns („categories of behaviour“) are to be observed [and what can we learn from this about „Arab ways“ to deal with „the world“]? [close to essentialist position, but:] diversity! complexity! etc. 9. National Character and Value Orientations 9. National Character and Value Orientations ‣ Part I: Prolegomena to a historical survey Part II: 10. Creative Expression: Society and Literary Orientations Arab Thought: Problems of Renewal, Modernity, and Transformation National Character... Value Orientations... National Character... Value Orientations... = ? ? ? ”How are they, these Arabs / Orientals / Muslims – in general, I mean...” ”An Arab is...”, ”the Turks have...”, ”it is a custom in Iran that...” H. Barakat (+ SG): these are (Orientalist, but also Middle Eastern nationalist) generalisations, essentialisations ! Reconciliation Reconciliation Exposure Revolutionary Change 1850-1914 Formative Period1850-1914 Formative Period 19th c. reforms (EG: Moh. Ali, OE: tanzimat ) WW I => end of great Empires => nation states 1918-1945 Struggle for National Independence Interwar period – WW II 1945-1992 Independence and Postindependence Researching the Roots of Disastercf. H. Barakat, The Arab World (1993), III, ch. 11 History of the Arab World Main periods (according to Guth) Reform period (19th c.) Nationalism (early 20th c.) Disillusionment (± 1930)Independence (early 1950s) Beginning doubts (late 1950s / early 1960s) Post-1967 (shock of June War) Postmodern (1980s ff.)►►► (cont.) EG: Muh. Ali (1805-48) & dynasty EG: Muh. Ali (1805-48) & dynasty Militærvesen Administrasjon Utdanning Landbruk Industri Handel 1773 Naval Engineers School (‘Polytechnic’, mühendisḫāne 1773 Naval Engineers School (‘Polytechnic’, mühendisḫāne 1793 Artillery College1796 Army mühendisḫāne 1827 Medical Highschool (Ṭıbbīye ) 1834 Military Highschool (Ḥarbīye ) 1839 School of Law (Mekteb-i Maʿārif-i ʿAdlīye ) 1848 Dārülmuʿallimīn :1850 Dārülmaʿārif : (technical branches)1855 École Ottomane 1859 Mülkīye : 1868 Galatasaray :1878 School of Finances1879 Academy of the Arts1892 School of Economics1900 Dārülfünūn :Sentralisering, modernisering og de facto sekularisering (begynnende) Sentralisering, modernisering og de facto sekularisering (begynnende) Skapte en intervensjonsstat men under påtvungne frihandelsbetingelser Skapte to nye samfunnsklasser som kom til å prege 1900-tallet: privat jordeierklasse (knyttet til råvareøkonomien) (EG) ny sekulær utdanningselite: the „engineers“ (vs. ʿulamāʾ/ulema ) while new system is introduced, most of the old institutions remain in place dualistic system of parallel paths of education, religious vs. secular institutions , two elites (old and new)The „engineers“ The „engineers“ steadily gaining self-esteem and claim to power competition with traditional (religious) elite over influence in society and politics => anti-religious standpoints cf. „value orientations“ 19th c. Middle East Emergence of a new educated elite Institutions of traditional learning medrese al-Azhar „university“ The „engineers“ (cont.)The „engineers“ (cont.)steadily gaining self-esteem and claim to power competition with traditional (religious) elite over influence in society and politics => anti-religious standpoints cf. „value orientations“ pro (Western-inspired) reforms, but not too radical => negotiation vehicles of positioning themselves: ideology: ideas of the French Revolution and... – nationalism !new values: social & political reform ! (democracy, human rights, women, ...!)new facilities: the press (cf. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: role of „print capitalism“ in the spread of nationalism)genres (new aesthetics): literature (esp. prose)“modern” literature (novel, short story, drama) new (“modern”) elite – the “engineers” “modern” literature (novel, short story, drama) new (“modern”) elite – the “engineers” “engineers” try to gain territory and position themselves a) between ruling classes and the masses “modern” literature (novel, short story, drama) new (“modern”) elite – the “engineers” “modern” literature (novel, short story, drama) new (“modern”) elite – the “engineers” “engineers” try to gain territory and position themselves a) between ruling classes and the masses b) in contrast to the traditional elites count on the masses rather than on court etc. => popularization ( de-elitarization, simplification, “democratization”) orientated towards “global standard/norms” 7 stages of – also literary – history = 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” Reform period (19th c.) Nationalism (early 20th c.) Disillusionment (± 1930)Independence (early 1950s) Beginning doubts (late 1950s / early 1960s) Post-1967 (shock of June War) Postmodern (1980s ff.)7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (1) Reform period (19th c.) belief in necessity (and possibility) to „recover“ and catch up with global standards => reforms early 19th c.: „West“ is not yet a concept, and no „enemy“; later: „West/East“ (< colonialism) new elite: the European as chief authority, ”Bestätiger vom Dienst“ (R. Wielandt)old elite (e.g., court administratives, ʿulamāʾ ): strictly conservative reactionsothers: reform from within! nahḍah (cultural „renaissance“) [secular]Islamic fundamentalist reformism (iṣlāḥ : J. al-Afghānī, M. ʿAbduh, R. Riḍā, ʿA. al-Kawākibī) Islamsk oppvåkning Islamsk oppvåkning Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī 1839-1897 Muḥammad ʿAbduh 1849-1905 Arabisk (proto-)nasjonalisme ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Kawākibī 1849-1902 1900: krever et arabisk kalifat 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (1) Reform period (19th c.) (cont.) literature at the service of reform : edition of classical texts, lexica, dictionaries, revival of old genres => make heritage accessible & bear fruits; + neoclassicism printing of „folk“ literature => „relaxed“ entertainment presentation and discussion of reform models (pros and cons) teaching innovations and „real“ morals => edification exposure of social „evils“, e.g. criticism of tafarnuj / alafranga züppelik (ignorant/ unreflected imitation of European lifestyles, „dandyism“) historical novels teach Arab history => national consciousness and pride (Jurjī Zaydān) 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (1-2) pre–WW I classicism, neo-maqāmah e.g. Muḥ. & Ibr. al-Muwayliḥīcontemplativity, ‘romantic’ idealism, sentimentalism e.g. Muṣṭafā L. al-Manfalūṭī, Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān larmoyant rebellion, sentimental outcry al-Manfalūṭī, Jubrān early national literature, rural life e.g. Muḥ. Ḥ. Haykal7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (2) Nationalism (early 20th c.)Middle Eastern nationalisms are... the main ideology of the secular modernizers („engineers“) a reaction to increased European dominance, colonialism, occupation etc. qawm qawm waṭan Egypt, Algerieummah 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (2) Nationalism (early 20th c.)‘National literature’: From idealistic hope to disillusioned sobriety (ca. 1910-WW II) 0. Programs of “National Literature” 1. Early, ‘naïve’, idealistic adab qawmī 2. National enthusiasm, belief in progress (≈ ”Yes, we can!”) 3. Doubts and desillusionment (≈ ”Can we really?”) 4. Re-construction: other idealisms (≈ ”Since we can NOT, let’s try something else!”) e.g., Tawfīq al-Ḥakīm , Y. Ḥaqqī 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (2.1) Early National Literature local contents! countryside (often ‚romantically‘ idealized, idyllic) „typical“ characters, local colour (incl. dialect!) portraits => help to „imagine the nation“ (B. Anderson) cf. Turkey: „Ḫalḳa doğru!” (Towards the people!) literature „modern“ form! novel, short story, plays less intrusion from the author‘s side 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (2.2) National enthusiasm, belief in progress7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (3.1) Doubts and desillusionment7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (3.2) Reconstruction after disillusionment1940s – 1950s Main feature: critical realistic assessment ‚true‘, realistic surveys of society and insight into milieus, incl. diversity of ‚philosophies‘/Weltanschauungen aim: assessment, exposure of social, economic, political drawbacks main topics: poverty of the masses their struggle for survival carrierism, corruption conflicts within society moral ‘decay’ young generation’s desperate search for a meaningful philosophy of life ever-growing labour migration (deracinated peasants, migrant workers in urban slums, workers’ literature) & problems arising from industrialization (factory workers, urban proletariate) increased “Westernization” 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (4) Independence (early 1950s)clear about many difficulties => social criticism, critical realism But also belief that main obstacles – foreign domination & ancien régime (incl. feudal system) – have been removed => middle classes (the „engineers“, the military) seize power commitment to „al-sha‘b!“ , „people‘s rule“ high spirits, new enthusiasm (highly rhethoricized) belief in equality of „Third World“, own strength (Nasserism: Europe can be dealt with, faced, overcome, cf. Suez crisis) 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (4) Independence (1950s) (cont.)Social criticism, critical / socialist Realism Arabic „key“ narratives (mentioned also by H. Barakat)Yūsuf Idrīs (1927-1991) al-Ḥarām (The Sin, 1959)ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al -Sharqāwī (1920-1987) al-Arḍ (The Land/Soil, 1953)Laylā Baʿalbakkī (*1936) Anā aḥyā (I live, 1958)Nagīb Maḥfūẓ (1911-2006): the “Cairo novels” ►►►1940-50s: Social criticism, critical realism Nagīb Maḥfūẓ (b. 1911): The Cairo novels Khān al-Khalīlī al-Qāhira al-jadīda Zuqāq al-Midaqq Trilogy Bayn al-Qaṣrayn Qaṣr al-shawq al-Sukkariyya history of urban middle class family over three generations critical assessment of achievements and set-backs during the past half century (colonial, nationalist, independent Egypt)7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (5) Beginning doubts (late 1950s / early 1960s)Reasons doubts in authoritarian political leadership [cf. „vertical values“] first failures of Nasserism become apparent UAR ended economic drawbacks discrepancy between rhetorics and reality: heralded improvements still not noticeable increasingly repression, secret service, torture, executions hitherto pro-government intellectuals become critical of the regime (anti-Nasser) Arab world: „al-naksa“ (lost war, June 1967) => open dispair 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (5) Beginning doubts (late 1950s / early 1960s) Omslag mot slutten av 1950- / beg. av 1960-tallet Nagīb Maḥfūẓ : The Children of Gebelawi (Awlād Ḥāratinā , 1959 ) Nagīb Maḥfūẓ : The Thief and the Dogs (al-Liṣṣ wa’l-kilāb , 1962 ) Ghassān Kanafānī : Menn under sola / Men in the Sun (Rijāl fī ’l-shams , 1963 ) Ṣun‘allāh Ibrāhīm : The Smell of It (Tilka ’l-rā’iḥa ,1965/66 ) al-Ṭayyib Ṣāliḥ : Trekket mot Nord / Season of Migration to the North (Mawsim al-hijra ilā ’l-shamāl , 1966 )becoming conscious of colonial burden, own responsibility ‘Abdalḥakīm Qāsim : The Seven Days of Man (Ayyām al-insān al-sab‘a , 1969 ) Arabic literature and the West Coming to terms with independence الطيّب صالح al-Ṭayyib Ṣāliḥ , 1929-2009(Tayeb Salih) موسم الهجرة إلى الشمال Mawsim al-hijra ilā ’l-shamāl *first publication in Ḥiwār Season of Migration to the North , London: Heinemann etc., 1969 (og senere)Trekket mot Nord Le migrateur , Paris 1972"the most important Arabic novel of the 20th century" Arab Literary Academy in Damascus, 2001 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (6) Post-1967 (shock of June War)heavy self-criticism, esp. also language criticism (rhetoric „lies“) Ṣādiq J. al-ʿAẓm: „Self-Criticism after the Defeat“ (al-Naqd al-dhātī baʿd al-hazīmah) Nizār Qabbānī: „ Notes on the margins of the Defeat Registers“ (Hawāmish ʿalā daftar al-naksah) further insecurity, instability: political shift towards the West, opening of the markets, economic „liberalisation“, peace with Israel mistrust in established / dominant discourses ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ search for new fundaments: truth, authenticity, taʾṣīl , start from zero epistemological turn: new, non-mimetic discourse on reality 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (6) Post-1967 (shock of June War) (cont.)=> explore into new, hitherto neglected, silenced, tabooicized realities! predominance of „sad“ themes: loneliness hopelessness frustration of the individual Lebensangst disgust disappointment disillusionment inability to establish reliability in inter-human relationships etc. => experimental, avantgardist mood of rebuilding from below: (intentional) lack of structural coherence associative narrating absurdity, contradictions, antagonisms, incomprehensibility, irrationality of life mixed realities: dreams, myth, surrealistic, phantastic elements 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (6) Post-1967 (shock of June War) (cont.)shocking, scandal-provoking: [cf. HB: „exposure“, „revolutionary“] Ṣun‘allāh Ibrāhīm (*1937): “The Smell of It” (Tilka ’l-rā’iḥa ,1965 /66 ) Muḥammed Sh For Bread Alone (al-Kh ubz al-ḥāfī , 1972/73 resp. 1982) Gamāl al-Gh īṭānī (*1945): Zayni Barakat (al-Zaynī Barakāt , 1974 ) search for authentically “Arabic” = non-Westernizing way of writing experimenting with pre-colonial genres (maqâmah , risâlah , ...) 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (7) Postmodern (1980s ff.) (cont.)Ṣun‘allāh Ibrāhīm (*1937): The Committee (al-Lajna , 1981 ) fierce critique of economic globalization (anti-”McDonaldization”) grotesque satire on the Egypt of Sadat’s “open door” politics plot: detective story, discovery of the crimes of the regime and their global collaborators (West/US-based multinational enterprises: CocaCola etc.) 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (7) Postmodern (1980s ff.)dissolution of West/East in global reciprocity Arabs in exile/diaspora (L. Aboulela, Translator ; Ḥanān al-Shaykh, Only in London ; Orhan Pamuk, White Castle ; Kader Abdollah) East as “mirror” of the West, and vice versa – each is part of the other’s identity play with stereotypes and “great narratives” (grands récits) such as the old West/East dichotomy 7 stages – 7 attitudes vis-à-vis ”the West” (7) Postmodern (1980s ff.) (cont.)Edward al-Kharrāṭ (*1926): City of Saffron Turābuhā za‘farān , 1985 ) growing up in cosmopolitan Alexandria in the 1930s nostalgia-loaden Coptic minority cosmopolitan diversity child’s perspective (authenticity) identity question: Who am I? Am I this boy “Michael”? Dostları ilə paylaş:
