Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Rebellion of Ibn al-Ashath
The Kharaj, revenue had fallen because of the conversion to Islam and consequent migrations of the cultivators to towns. Hajjaj adopted drastic measures against the emigrants ordering them to

386 Political and Cultural History of Islam

return to their villages and branding the names of their lands on their hands. This severity created resentment and disaffection among the masses. Many of them joined Ibn al-Ashath when he rebelled against Hajjaj.
The force sent against the Zunbil, the Turkish ruler of Kabul, who had refused to pay the usual tribute, retreated from the difficult passes of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman was sent at the head of a large army to chastise the Zunbil in 80/699. The Zunbil was expelled and his land was ravaged. His troops resented an order from Hajjaj to continue the war and swore allegiance to Ibn al-Ashath. Coming to favourable terms with the Zunbil they declared war against Hajjaj and Abdul Malik.
Ibn al-Ashath marched towards Iraq and defeating Hajjaj’s columns at Testar captured Basrah in Jamadi 1, 81/Jan.701. Many Basrites and other disaffected persons joined Ibn al-Ashath as the Jews and Christians, who had accepted Islam newly to seek relief from the payment of Jizya and Kharaj, had been forced by Hajjaj to go back to their farms in the villages and pay the usual tax. Reinforcements came under a Kalbite chief, drove back Ibn alAshath and killed 11.000 Basrites on account of their submission to Ibn al-Ashath. Hajjaj’s further tyranny made other Basrite refugees join Ibn al-Ashath who, at the head of 100,000 men gave battle to Hajjaj half-way between Basrah and Kufah. This alarmed Abdul Malik and he proposed to equalize the pensions of the Iraqis with those of the Syrians and to make suitable provision for Ibn alAshath. But al-Hajjaj remonstrated against this concession and Ibn al Ashath’s men refused to accept the offer. So the war continued and a final engagement took place in the middle of 82/701 in which his army was defeated. Ibn al-Ashath retreated to Basrah from where he escaped to Persian border then to Kirman and finally he took refuge with the Zunbil who killed him later in 85 A.H./704-5. Thus ended the rebellion of the Arabs against their Syrian masters. Submission of the Azraqis
Muhallab ibn abi Sufra was engaged in Persia against the Kharijis. The Azraqi seat of the Kharijis under the command of Qatari ibn al-Fujaah had occupied Pars, Kirman and other provinces in the East. They were driven out of Pars and forced to take refuge in Kirman where they defied the Umayyad authoiii/ but soon the rebels fell out among themselves and were dispersed. Thus afier a period of twenty years ended the rebellion of Azraqis in 78 A.H./639 A.D.
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Abdul Malik Muhallab Governor of Khurasan and Sijistan
In recognition of the service of Muhallab he was appointed Governor of Khurasan and Sijistan. He fought against the Turkomans across the Oxus and brought them partially under Muslim control. Muhallab died in 82 A.H./70I-2 A.D. and was succeeded by his sons. Yazid son of Muhallab and Governor of Merv had to face trouble created by the followers of Abdur Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ashath 60,000 in number now under the leadership of one Abdur Rahman ibn al-Abbas al-Hashimi who had occupied Harat. They were defeated and dispersed and many of them were put to death. Still Yazid was suspected of pardoning some of his Yamanite blood, this gave a plea to al-Hajjaj, a Kaysite. to appoint Qutaybah over Yazid and his brothers.
Due to tribal jealousy of the Arabs, the Muslims could not make much headway beyond the Oxus. Ibn Khazim, who had killed a large number of the Bani Tamim, being deserted by his followers retired from Merv to Nishapur. He sent his son Musa to Merv to save his property. He was received by Tarkhun, King of Samarqand. Latei he escapd to Tirmidh and seized a fortress where the Kaysite followers of his father and about 8,000 followers of Ibn al-Ashath flocked round him. Musa. therfore, beat back the Turkomans and the Governor’s force had occupied Merv. He was left undisturbed for fifteen years by Muhallab’s sons with a strong army assisted b\

15,000 of Tarkhun Turks defeated and killed Musa in 85 A.H./704 A.D. Though Yazid’s brother overpowered a strong rebel it was not appreciated by Hajjaj because he belonged to the tribe of Hajjaj. War with the Byzantines

Pressed hard by rebellions at home Abdul Malik had concluded humiliating treaty with the Byzantine Emperor Constantine and renewed the same with his son Justinian II agreeing to pay 1,000 nomismata and the daily tribute of one slave and one horse. The Byzantines on their side allowed him half of the revenues of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus and dispersed the Mardaites from the mount of Lebanon over the districts of the Empire. But Justinian did not honour the terms of peace for long and occupied Albania and Rumania against the terms of peace.
One overcoming Ibn Zubayr, Abdul Malik resumed war after fifteen years in 73 A.H./692 A.D. against the Greeks whose agents the Christian Jarajunah of al-Lukkam had penetrated into the Lebanon. Annually campaigns were sent to North Africa, Armenia

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Political and Cidturnl History of Islam

and Asia Minor often under the generalship of his own sons. From

76/April 695-6 the war took a serious turn when the Greek Emperor Justinian II refused to accept Arab coins with religious formula of Islam and import from Egypt papyrus stamped with trade mark of ”Say, He alone is God” instead of the Greek inscription and the cross so long borne by the coins ad papyrus and threatened that if such a thing was repeated he would strike gold coins, which the Muslims were still procuring from them, with inscriptions offensive to their Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). In 79/March 698-9 Antioch was occupied by the Greeks and Muslim citizens were put to torture and humiliation. In 692 A.D. the Byzantines had been defeated near the Ciiician Sebastopolis. Justinian II had fled to the Propontis and Southern Armenia and Cypus had fallen into the hands of Abdul Malik. The Muslims now advanced in Asia Minor, occupied man> forts and penetrated as far as Erzerum in 84/703. Affairs in North Africa

Meanwhile war was also continuing in North Africa. The Muslims under Uqba fought vigorously in North Africa and pushed the conquests west-ward from Qayrawan to the Atlantic coast. Receiving he!p from the Greeks, the Berbers revolted against the Arabs under the leadership of Kusaylah and defeated them at Tahudah, south-east of Biskra in Algeria. Uqba was killed in 683. His successor evacuated the territory and the Berbers marched on Qayrawan which fell into their hands. Many Arabs retired to Egypt. Fi\e years after, Zuhayr an old lieutenant of Uqba defeated the allied force of the Greeks and the Berbers. Kusaylah was killed. A Greek reinforcement came from Sicily and Zuhayr was taken unaware and his entire force was cut to pieces. In 74/693 another Arab force greater than ever sent to North Africa was despatched under a new Governor of ifriqiyah, Hassan ibn al-Numan al-Ghassani. Qayrawan was reconquered in 697 and Carthage \\as stormed in the following >ear by a Muslim fleet and other coastal towns were occupied.
The Greeks were defeated, the city fell and many citizens escaped to Spain and Sicily. The Berbers reassembled under their ne\\ ,*.,’,Jer prophetess Kahinah and attacked Hassan and drove him back to Barqah which he fortified and his fortifications became known as the Castles of Hassan. Five years after on receiving a strong reinforcement. Hassan marched westward from Barqah and gave battle to Kahinah, who was killed near a well which became known as Bir al-Kahinah. Her sons with 12.000 strong joined the
Abdul Mnnk
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Muslims and Qayrawan was re-occupied by Hassan. He remained in command until charge was taken over by Musa ibn Nusayr in 89/700 and Ifriqiya was separated from Egypt under the direct control of Damascus.