Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Society mid Administration
709
SOCIETY AND ADMINISTRATION
The division of Andalusian society into religious and ethnic groups adversely affected social integration. Consequent!}-. Andalusian society remained heterogeneous and discordant and was often beset by grave troubles in which religion and ethnic association provided the main lines of cleavage. In theory, Islam recognized the equality of all adherents regardless of ethnic origin or social group. In practice, however, differences were common, arising mainly from economic and political factors. Muwalladun, Berbers, and other groups felt they were not getting their due as prescribed by the ideas of Islam: they often rose in open revolt against the ruling class.
It should be emphasized, however, that Andalusian society was flexible and open. A man of humble station, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, could climb the social ladder and occupy any high position except that of supreme ruler. Moreover, the various social groups were united in language and culture-the two major elements in a common national identity. But this did not prevent social inequality, tension, and recurrent revolts whenever there was a political vacuum. Economic and social factors also contributed to restiveness. In this connection, one may distinguish the following groups according to their position in the social pyramid: nobility (alkhassah), the masses (al-ammah), and the slaves.
From 711 to 1031, an Arab elite whose blood had become diluted through mixture and intermarriage held the peak of the social pyramid. This group represented the dynasty from which the supreme ruler and other high officials were drawn. Known as Qurayshites. or Umayyads, they received ample pensions (rizq) and were given large estates (qata’i). Under the emirate, there were five important families which held key positions as governors of
provinces, commanders of the army, judges, wazirs, and so on. In the course of time, however, many of these posts were filled by nonArabs who, through ability and wealth, succeeded in moving up the social ladder and becoming an integral part of the nobility (ahl alkhassah). By and large, they lived in cities and received their incomes from the court and from their estates.
With the downfall of the Umayyad dynast), this Arab aristocracy was soon replaced by a number of lesser aristocracies consisting of Berbers, Saqalibah and others who forged petty states for themselves. After the eleventh century, the Berbers became the predominant element in society. However, they soon lost their influential position to the Christians, who eventually managed to gain full control of the destiny of al-Andalus. The masses constituted the bulk of population and included the middle and lower classes. They were the main stay of society. To them belonged the crafts, commerce, agriculture, and all the minor civil posts. They were made up of heterogeneous elements-Arabs, Berbers, Mozarabs, and Jews. The last two groups inhabited their own quarts, but they moved freely for business and social intercourse. A prosperous segment, or a middle class, lived in comfortable homes, where as others merely subsisted. Ibn ’Abdun and Ibn al-Ra’uf give us a glimpse of the many civil service employees, tradesmen, and craftsmen during the eleventh and twelfth centuries in Seville.
There were wardens, gatekeepers, caretakers of mosques and public buildings, street cleaners, garbage collectors, bakers, perfumers, wheat dealers, butchers, cooks, fishermen, and traders of figs, oil, perfume, linen, milk, cheese, meat, fruit and vegetables, one cannot be sure of the composition of the rural population, one may assume, however, that it was more homogenous than that of cities, grouped along ethnic or religious lines. Although many probably had their own land, the rest worked for absentee landlords on a sharecropping basis which may have amounted to between 25 percent and

50 per cent. The recurrent revolts and instability in the countryside made their lives insecure-a situation that must have prompted man y to settle in large towns where they could engage in menial labc /ur This may party explain the frequent famines and economic troi a(j|es in al-Andalus.

In ancient and medieval times, slaveiy u.i-> a comr non apcj flourishing business. Islam condoned the institution ( through / manumission was considered an act pleasing to God. Al-/4n(ja|us had

710 Political and Cultural History of Islam

many slave markets and a large number of individuals who prospered through slave trade. Slaves were often victims of war, but they were also sought throughout the Mediterranean region by specialized merchants who knew the market demands for human chattel. The slaves included blacks from the Sudan and other parts of Africa and Christians from Spain and elsewhere in western and eastern Europe.
The aristocracy and the well to do had a large number of slaves of both sexes. They used them for domestic help, menial labour, and so forth. For instance, some male Saqalibah were castrated to become eunuchs in the caliph’s harems, and others served as guards in the palace. Female Saqalibah with fair skin and blue eyes were eagerly sought as concubines. The price could be very high, depending upon a girl’s talents as dancer or singer and upon her physique. A female had a better chance of being declared free, especially after she bore children. The freed woman was thus called ’the mother of the son” (umm al-walad).