Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Status of Womeu
Finally, some remarks should be made about the status of women in al-Andalus. In theory, a woman was subjected to the traditional restrictions imposed on her by religion and Islamic custom: inequality with men and limited freedom of movement and social intercourse. For instance, Andalusian propriety required that women sjiould not be allowed to walk alone, to follow a funeral, or to visit cemeteries, they should be kept whenever possible from the company of men at weddings and other gatherings unless accompanied. They should not wash in streamlets or sit at the edge

Political and Cultural History of Islam
of a wadi (river), for they would provoke men; they should not be jaiied with men, and their warden should be old and married. Moreover, women should not enter churches because of the corruption attributed to priests, who were said often to co-habit with more than one woman.
In practice, however, Andalusian women seemed to have enjoyed a great deal of freedom, as attested to by their poetry and biographies. They seemed to have circulated freely in the streets and

10 have enjoyed all sorts of gatherings. It would seem that women had more freedom in Andaltis than in the eastern part of the Muslim world. Significant too is the fact that when a Muslim in Andalus married a Christian woman, she often was allowed to continue practicing her religion. A great number of rulers were quite submissive to their wives or concubines, who often displayed an independent attitude and whimsical behaviour.

Vast numbers of poems were composed in their names exalting their beauty and good qualities. The emir al-Hakam 1 composed a poem to his five rebellious concubines and became overjoyed when he was reconciled with them. Abdur Rahman II showered his wife Tarub with expensive and precious gifts and composed numerous verses in her name. The great poet-king alMu’tamid showed a great deal of submissiveness to the whims and arbitrary demands of his beloved I’timad. Walladah (d.I091), daughter of the caliph al- Mustakfi, was an able poetess. She had a salon frequented by the leading talents of the day. She had a complete disregard for the veil and circulated freely among the high circles of eleventh-century Cordova. She frequently met her lover Ibn Zaydun at night in the beautiful gardens of Cordova, exchanged pleasantries until! dawn, and often partook wine with him.1
Other interesting glimpses about Andalusian women may be gained from the famous Dove’s Ring, a valuable treatise on love by the prolific Ibn Hazm. Dealing with love at first sight, !bn Hazm refers to the gathering of women at the Gate of Perfumers in Cordova. One day, the poet al-Ramadi saw a slave girl (jariyah) who took possession of his heart and love. He followed her, succeeded in engaging her in a conversation, and set a rendezvous for Friday at the Gate of the Perfumers. Lovers corresponded extensively, making use of male or female messengers, in addition, lovers frequently visited each other.
\m\arG
C’hcjne. Muslim Spam its Historj and Culture, P. 137
Socieh/ and Administration
713
In conclusion, the status and role of women varied according to the social pyramid. Women of the low class (aminah) were not inhibited by social structure. The> performed numerous domestic duties and helped support the family. It was among the wealthy class and aristocracy that the status of women was complicated by economic and social considerations and by the taste and proclivity of the husband. A woman ma> have been quite submissive to her husband, thus conforming to legislation favouring the male, or quite independent and inventive, thereb) subverting the law and the social mores. In the latter case, she appeared as a towering figure exerting great influence on her husband, including a decisixe role in politics.
This notwithstanding, she did not attempt to encroach on the freedom of her husband to have a multiplicity of \\i\es and concubines. In fact, she seemed to resign herself to a life of competition in the harem, and to the expectation of becoming the favourite wife. In this wa\. she would become the prima donna of the harem and would be served by an arraj of servants (jawan alkhidmah). There were many gifted appreciated for pleasurable purposes (ladhdhah) or for more serious pursuits. They were the object of love and a source of in privation for an enormous quantiU of tender lyrical poetry. ADMINISTRATION
From 711 to 750 al-Andalus constituted an integral part of the Islamic Empire with its capital at Damascus. Administratively. al-Andalus was part of the province of the Maghrib, ruled from the city of Qayrawan in present das Tunisia. Its gcnernor was appointed by cither the caliph in Damascus or the governor of the Maghrib, but in time of crisis he was also elected by the Andalusians themselves. As for the internal administration of al-Andalus, the Arabs, like the Church and the Visigoths before them, adopted the existing administration which was traceable to the Romans. The Arabs had done the same in the hast b\ adopting.Sassanid and Byzantine institutions, which were eventual 1\ Arabi/cJ Division of Spain
Al-Andalus was divided into three mam districts: central, eastern and western. The central district included the cities of Cordova. Granada, Malaga, Almeria, Jaen and Toledo. In the western district were Seville. Jerez. Gibraltar. Tarifa, Beja, Badajoz, Mcrida, Lisbon, and Sihcs. In the eastern district were Saragossa. Valencia. Murcia, Cartagena, and Albaracin. These three main

714
Political and Cultural History oflslmu

Society mid Administration
715
divisions were subdivided into provinces, to each of which a governor (wali) was appointed by the governor of al-Andalus and by the emir or caliph under the Umayyads. Although we do not possess an exact account of the number of provinces, one can distinguish some twenty or more which were designated by the name of a city or region. East province (kurah) had its capital (hadrah) were the governor resided. In addition to the provinces there were three regions known as the Marches (thughur). They high, middle, and low Marches extended from Saragossa to Toledo. They were zones of war, ordinarily governed by a military commander (qa’id) whose troops were in constant readiness against Christian intrusions from the North.