Q. & A. 711 to 1707 with solved Papers css 1971 to date

Institution of Military
One can hardly omit the military institution on which depended the defense, peace, and security of the realm. The Arab conquerors relied on the army for conquest and pacification. Their success depended on its strength, discipline, and loyalty. Once these elements were lacking Andalus fell into a state of confusion-which happened frequently. The underlying reasons may be found in the organization of the military and its objectives. The army remained heterogeneous throughout, and its loyalty was identified with group consciousness rather than with national consciousness. The call for jihad was often made but was frequently superseded by self-interest. The composition of the army followed ethnic lines from the outset, Its early components were Berbers and Arabs. These two groups.conflicted each other further torn by serious tribal divisions.

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Political and Cultural History of Islam

After the army’s resounding success in conquering most of the Peninsula, nothing was done to bridge these differences. Army contingents for a long time identified primarily with their tribes - for example, the Syrian contingents were given grants of land (qata’i) in the various southern cities, according to their place of origin, and the Berbers were given certain areas in the north. The central government soon discovered that it could rely on neither Syrians nor Berbers and introduced mercenaries. AI-Hakam I (796-822) is said to have been the first emir to introduce Christian slaves into the army. The Saqalibah became the mainstay of the dynasty under the great Abdur Rahman in and his successor, Hakam II. As the power of the Saqalibah became desisive. Ibn Abi Amir substituted loyal Berbers whom he brought from Africa.
Andalus existed in a state of war throughout its history. There was hardly a decade of continuously peace. Wars and skirmishes with the Christians coupled with frequent internal revolts required the presence of a standing army of 25,000 to 50,000 men. In an emergency the ruler called for volunteers to fight in a jihad. Fortresses (qala’i’), castles, and other fortifications were erected and constantly manned. The army considered of cavalrymen (fursan) and infantrymen (rajjalah). A general (amir) command 5,000 men and had under him several officers: a qa’id who commanded 1,000 men, a nakib (200 men), an ’arif (40 men), and other minor officers. Up to the time of Abdur Rahman II (823-852), al- Andalus had no viable navy. However, when threatened by the Norsemen (majus), Abdur Rahman II took immediate steps to strengthen the navy. This force soon proved effective in checking Norse inroads as well as the menace of the Fatimids in the Mediterranean. Moreover, the navy succeeded under Abdur Rahman HI in occupying and holding the strategies cities of Ceuta and Tangier in northwest Africa. Economic Policy
Economic policy in Andalus conformed to general Islamic practice. At fist the conqueror introduced, at the expense of the Visigothic nobility and the Church, a land reform more tolerable to the peasants. The conqueror himself soon became the major landowner, and many of the conquered or contested lands passed on to the State. Land ownership meant wealth, and agriculture was the mainstay of the economy. The early Umayyad rulers fully realized the importance of agriculture in the economic life of the country and ’ endeavoured to improve irrigation by constructing canals. They also
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improved agricultural produce bv mtioducing vegetables, spices. rice, sugar, oranges, and cotton from the East. These products \\ere widely cultivated. Coinage System
A state had a monopoly on minting silver and gold coins Abdur Rahman 11 appears to have been the first ruler to strike coins A number of taxes were exacted, to be paid in cash or kind. Muslims were required as a part of their religious obligation to pa> alms (sadaqa), which represented about 10 per cent of the mobile property. The Christians and Jews were required to pay the poll tax (jizya) in return for protection. A more general tax was the kliaraj imposed on land. In addition, there \\ere extraordinary and oppressive taxes imposed on animals, wine, olives, and other goods.
Revenue
Andalus had periods of prosperity and acute depressions, the latter owing to natural disasters or the ravages of war. We have only scanty information about the net revenue of a few rulers, the annual income (jibayah) under Hakam 1 amounted to 600,000 dinars. It reached 1,000,000 under ’Abdur Rahman II, it seems to have declined afterward, but it reached a maximum of 5.480,000, in addition to 765.000 collected from Crown properties, under ’Abdur Rahman in. This caliph allocated from land taxes 300.000 dinars each for the army, administration, and serve. He is said to have left

20,000,000 dinars in the treasury upon his death. Such property continued under Ibn Abi ’Amir but declined considerably under his immediate successors. During the political chaos and recurrent internal wars from 1009 onward, the financial situation in Andalus deteriorated to the extent that the central government could not maintain an army. As a result, political disorder was accompanied b\ an economic breakdown. The many newly established states could maintain themselves only through oppressive taxes and extortion. Internal wars forced them to maintain mercenary armies in constant readiness and to pay tributes to avoid being absorbed by the Christians. Moreover, the local rulers indulged in extravagant spending. Under the circumstances, Andalus gradually fragmented until it ceased to exist as a recognizable political entity. The Administration of Justice of Muslim Law in Spain

Before the death of Hisham A.D. 796. the Fakihs of Spain had come into prominence. These jurists belonged to the Maliki School of jurisprudence. The Abbasids Caliphs were inimical to

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