10
1. Primary ways of word formation
[Переслано от SHOXRUX BAXRIDDINOVICH]
The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion.
Affixation is the formation of a new word with the help of affixes, e.g. heartless (from
heart), tooverdo (from to do). Conversion is the formation of a new word by bringing a
stem of this word into a different formal paradigm, e.g. a fall (from to fall), to slave (from
a slave). The basic form of the original and the basic form of the derived words in case of
conversion are homonymous. Word-composition is the formation of a new word by
combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms, e.g. door-
handle, house-keeper.
2. Approaches to the word meaning There are 3approaches to the problem: 1) the referential
approach, which formulates the essence of meaning as the interdependence between
words and things or concepts they denote; 2) the functional approach, which studies the
functions of a word in speech. This approach is (sometimes described as contextual)
based on the analysis of various contexts; and 3) theoperational approach, which is
centered on defining meaning through its role in the process of communication (this
approach is also called information-based). Within the framework of the referential
approach lexical meaning is the content of the word, that is a correlation between the
sound form and an object or phenonmenon of reality, denoted by this string of sounds,
which is seen by the human mind.
***Decide-resolve.enact. Cry-weeping.wail.Calm-quite.peaceful.Do-make.Describe-
show.depict. Destroy-undo.spoil. Idea-main.opinion. Fast-quick.rapid.Go-
gang.wend.walk. Hate-despise.
3. Find as more synonyms as you can for the given words: decide, cry, calm, do, describe,
destroy, idea, fast, go, hate
11
1. Changes of meanings and their results
The word-meaning is a changeable phenomenon. The changes of word-meaning are due
to many intralinguistic and extralinguistic causes.The problems of word-meaning are
always in the focus of attention of all semanticists of the world, and the causes, ways and
results of semantic change are mostintricate and essential. When discussing the change of
meaning, it is necessary to differentiate between 3 notions: 1) causes of semantic change;
2) nature of semantic change; 3) results of semantic change.The causes of semantic
changes may be grouped under two main headings, linguistic and extralinguistic ones.
Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation may be of
paradigmatic and syntagmatic character; in dealing with them we have to do with the
constant interaction and interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech,
such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with
ellipsis and with fixed contexts, changes resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts, and
some other causes.
2. Secondary ways of word formation
Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a
new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and
can be met in other Indo-European languages.Stress interchange can be mostly met in
verbs and nouns of Romanic origin : nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs
on the last syllable, e.g. accent - to accent. This phenomenon is explained in the
following way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed
into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns.It is the way of
word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some
semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitationBlends are words formed
from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined
: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component
(apocope) and the beginning of the second component (apheresis)
3. Find as more antonyms as you can for the given words: easy, dark, common, ruin, all,
attractive, bottom, downwards, dry, light
12
1. Change of meaning of words and their results
The word-meaning is a changeable phenomenon. The changes of word-meaning are due
to many intralinguistic and extralinguistic causes.The problems of word-meaning are
always in the focus of attention of all semanticists of the world, and the causes, ways and
results of semantic change are mostintricate and essential. When discussing the change of
meaning, it is necessary to differentiate between 3 notions: 1) causes of semantic change;
2) nature of semantic change; 3) results of semantic change.The causes of semantic
changes may be grouped under two main headings, linguistic and extralinguistic ones.
Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation may be of
paradigmatic and syntagmatic character; in dealing with them we have to do with the
constant interaction and interdependence of vocabulary units in language and speech,
such as differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with
ellipsis and with fixed contexts, changes resulting from ambiguity in certain contexts, and
some other causes.
2. First and second consonant shift in German languages The First and Second Sound Shifts
are terms which refer to two series of consonant changes in the development of the
Germanic forms from which Modern Standard German has evolved.The Second or High
German Consonant Shift is a sound change that took place in around AD 500 and which
affected the southern or High German dialects. In these dialects initial, medial, and final
West-Germanic */p, t, k/ shifted to fricatives and affricates.
3. Find as more antonyms as you can for the given words: dull, famous, friend, gloomy,
frequent, guest, pleasant, ugly, glade, fortunate
13
1 Problems of periodization of language history The English Language has a long
and eventful history. Its development began in the 5th century of our era, when groups
of West Germanic tribes settled in the British Isles. During the sixteen hundred years of
its history the English language has been undergoing constant change and it is
changing still. It is customary to divide the history of the English Language in to three
main periods:
Old English which last from the 5th century to the end of the 11th , the dates of its
end as suggested by various authorities range from 1066, which is the year of the
Norman Conguest, to 1150.
Middle English - from the 12th to the 15th century, the period is belived to have
ended in 1475, the year of the introduction of printing.
New English , which means the English of the last six centures. With in it,
historians usually distinguish the Early New English period from the 15th century to the
17th up to the age of Shakespeare, from which as called Late New English from the
17th till our times.
Types of meaning and their classification
1. Denotative meaning / linguistic meaning dictionary meaning Linguistic meanings are
known by various terms like: denotative meaning, logical meaning, cognitive meaning,
dictionary meaning, or conceptual meaning. Denotative meaning refers to the definition
of a word given in the dictionary.
The aim of denotative meaning is to provide the semantic representation of a given
phrase or sentence using the configuration of abstract symbols and contrastive
features. It helps to distinguish the particular meaning of a sentence from all other
possible meanings of the sentence.
2. Connotative meaning / associative meaning Connotative meanings include
physical characteristics, psychological and social properties (sociability, maternal
instinct) of the referents based on certain social viewpoints. Connotative
meanings are generally peripheral
3. Social meaning / stylistic meaning Social meanings are those meanings that
occur in a specific society and reveal social background of the speaker. Other
features of social meanings may disclose something concerning the social
relationship between the speaker and the hearer
4. Emotive meaning / affective meaning “Affective meanings reflect personal
feelings of the speaker including the attitude to the listener or to the content of
the talk” These are often explicitly conveyed through the conceptual or the
connotative content of the words used.
5. Reflected meaning /collocative meaning Collocative meanings consist of the
associations of a word based on account of the meaning of words which tend to
occur in its specific environment, e.g. affection and fondness share the similarity
in the meaning. But both words may be distinguished by the range of nouns with
which they co-occur or collocate
6.Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical
constructions. In other cases, thematic meanings may be stress and intonation
rather than grammatical construction that highlights the information in one part of
a sentence.
Find as more synonyms as you can for the given words: look, old, place, great, popular,
honest, show, trouble, ugly, smile
14
1. Grammatical categories of Germanic languages
All old Germanic languages were synthetic characterized by well-developed verbal
paradigm. Old Germanic verbs were marked by the following grammatical
categories: person, number, tense, mood and voice.
The category of person was realized in Old Germanic languages through a system of
personal endings, which were the most important structural elements in a verbal
paradigm being polysemantic.
The category of number was expressed by the same series of endings. Initially Germanic
verb had 3 numbers: singular, dual and plural. Later dual was eliminated.
The category of tense was formed by the opposition of two tenses - Present and Past
(both in Indicative and Subjunctive active). There was no Future tense. The Imperative
had no tense differentiation.
The category of mood was represented by the indicative, the imperative and the
subjunctive. This opposition was asymmetrical for two reasons. First, the Imperative had
no time correlation. Second, the homonymous forms eliminated the distinction between
the Imperative and the Subjunctive.The category of voice was represented by the
opposition ‘active – mediopassive’.
The synthetic mediopassive forms existed in Proto-Germanic and were inherited by
Gothic.
2. What is the semantic structure of the word?
The branch of Linguistics which studies the
meaning of different linguistic units is called Semantics. The part of Lexicology which
studies the meaning and the development of meaning of words is
called Semasiology.Word meaning is represented by different types of meaning:
grammatical, lexical, lexico-grammatical.
Grammatical meaning is the component of word meaning, recurrent in identical sets of
individual forms of different words. It is expressed by: word-form (such as books, girls,
boys – the meaning of plurarity; looked, asked – tense meaning);
the position of the word in relation to other words (e.g. He sings well, She dances badly
– ‘sings’ and ‘dances’ are found in identical positions between a pronoun and an adverb,
their identical distribution proves that they have identical gr.m.)
Lexico-grammatical meaning of the word is the common denominator (знаменатель) to
all the meanings of the words belonging to a certain lexico-grammatical class or group
of words.Lexical meaning is the component of word meaning recurrent in all the forms
of the word. The word forms go, goes, went, gone, going have different gr.m., but they
have one and the same l.m. ‘the process of movement’.
3. Find as more synonyms as you can for the given words: love, hate, support, amazing,
bad, beautiful, begin, shut, come, understand
15
1. Semantic systems in English?
Semantics means the meaning and interpretation of words,
signs, and sentence structure. Semantics largely determine our reading comprehension,
how we understand others, and even what decisions we make as a result of our
interpretations Semantic Structures is a large-scale study of conceptual structure and its
lexical and syntactic expression in English that builds on the system of Conceptual
Semantics described in Ray Jackendoff's earlier books Semantics and Cognition and
Consciousness and the Computational Mind.
2. What is a neologism? New coined words Neologisms are words that are created to
explain new ideas. Neologisms are formed by borrowing words or mixing existing words
to talk about new concepts. They can be made of words in English, words from other
languages, or by adding a prefix or suffix that best suits the new concept. A great
example is ‘webinar.’ This word comes from blending ‘web’ and ‘seminar’ to describe a
seminar that takes place on the internet. This is a new concept that has never existed
before the 21st century, so English speakers used what they already know to describe
something new.
3. Fill in the blanks with the words opposite in meaning to those underlined :
1. He failed to qualify in the first two attempts but ...................... in the third one.
2.He
often
visits
me
but
I
.......................
go
to
his
house.
3.He
is
brave
but
his
brother
is
.........................
4.An airplane consumes more fuel while ascending than while............................
5.Tigers are very common in Kerala but lions are .....................
Dostları ilə paylaş: |