Semitic Lanrnsses

426 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Simons

the "community," and obstinacy, while he was deeply conscious of his responsibility as elder of the people of God. None of his Dutch con 

6. Charac  temporaries surpassed him in ability

terization. to write in a popular and edifying

vein, or in ease of composition.

Through his toil, his books and letters, and the love

which he bore his followers, with which he in­

spired them in their turn, he enabled the community

to increase in numbers and to hold fast to their

lofty morality. Every trace of the excesses of

Munster and Joiis had vanished, and henceforth the

community was to remain true to the teachings of

the New Testament as their sole rule of faith. Thus

the followers of Menno reverenced him deeply,

though only as one of their pious teachers. Grad­

ually all his works were printed, not only as a

source of appeal in the controversies over excom­

munication and the doctrine of the Incarnation,

but also for edification. The pietistic element

among the Anabaptists called themselves by his

name, as their opponents had done since 1544. In

Upper Germany and along the Rhine, on the other

hand, the Anabaptists of the sixteenth century were

estranged from him on account of their controver­

sies [due to his insistence on his doctrine of the in­

carnation and marital avoidance in case one of the

married pair was under discipline. Cf. A. H. New­

man, Hist. of Antipedobaptism, pp. 309 312, Phila­

delphia, 1897], but in the seventeenth and eight­

eenth centuries his name and writings won their

esteem as the representative of their separatiatio

life and their opposition to the established church.

The works of Menno, still preserved (so far as extant) in their original editions at Amsterdam, were written in colloquial Low German and trans­lated into Dutch after his death. The first edition of a small collection appeared in 1562, followed by larger collections in 1601, 1646, and 1681, the latter being almost complete. A German edition of all his writings was published at Elkhart, Ind., in 1876, and Eng. transl., in 1871. Although there a;e sev­eral portraits of Menno, none of them were taken from life, and only one, which is preserved .at Utrecht, seems to have come from a circle which knew him personally. In his later years he was a

cripple. S. CxAMEx.

II. Second Statement: Menno Simons and his coworkers differed from the more prominent re­formers of the sixteenth century in rejecting the doctrinal system of Predestination (q.v.). Prior to Jacobus Arminius (q.v.) they taught the freedom of the will. Of the doctrine that freedom of choice is not granted man, and yet he is held responsible and punished for sin, Menno speaks as " an abom­ination above all abominations " (Merino Simons, Complete Works, ii. 94, i. 221, Elkhart, Ind., 1871). John Calvin, in turn, who had evidently never ac­quired a first hand knowledge of Merino's teach­ings, speaks of Merino in most contemptuous terms.

While, according to the leading German reform­ers, " what is not against Scripture is for Scripture and Scripture is for it " (Luther), Merino held that, as concerns Christian doctrine and ceremonies, noth­ing can be rightly maintained that is not expressly taught and authorized in the New Testament. Need 

less to say that he attributed to the opinion of neither pope whom he considered Antichrist nor

Church Fathers any authoritative z. Views of weight. On the relation of the Old

Scripture. Testament to the New Testament

Scriptures he differed fundamentally from Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin. Menno, as well as the Swiss Brethren and Huteritea (see MENNONTTE9), held that " Christ alone is our law giver." The Old Testament precepts were largely intended for premessianic times and have been restated by Christ and the apostles so far as they are to be applied to the Christian Church. The Old Testament Scrip­tures are indeed a part of the Word of God, they are the foundation and groundwork for the New, while the latter is the fulfilment of the Old; but in matters of Christian worship, practise, and life, the New Testament Scriptures are the only authority. While the Reformers Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin justified, on Old Testament authority, a union of Church and State, war, capital punishment, the oath, and in part also ritualism, Menno rejected the same on New Testament authority. Of the doctrine of the inner light, as held by Hans Denk (q.v.) and a few other Anabaptists and later by the Quakers, not a trace is found in his writings.

On original sin Menno teaches that through the fall all men inherit a sinful nature. Christ, the sec 

ond Adam, has atoned for the guilt of z. Sin; original sin, hence no one will be con­Justificatioa demned for the sin of Adam. All in 

by Faith. fants are saved through the atonement

of Christ,, according to his express promise. Condemnation awaits those who reject the means of salvation offered them. The doctrine of justification by faith is given great prominence in Menno's system. Luther's teaching on the sac­raments (baptismal regeneration and forgiveness of sin through the observation of the Lord's Supper) he rejects as inconsistent with this doctrine. " To teach and believe," says Menno, " that regenera­tion is the result of baptism, my brethren, is terri­ble idolatry and blasphemy against the blood of Christ. For there is neither in heaven nor on earth any other remedy for our sins, be they inherited evil propensities or transgressions, than the blood of Christ alone, as we have often shown in our first writings " (Works, ii. 200). " The blood of Christ is and will ever be the only and eternally valid means of our reconciliation, and not works, bap­tism, or Lord's Supper " (i. 158). The statement that " Christ is the only means of grace " is found oftentimes in Menno's writings; all the riches of grace may be obtained through faith in Chriatr­by no means through works and ceremonies.

Probably no contemporary of Merino Simons in­sists with more emphasis on the inseparable con 

nection of an obedient, holy life with 3. Holy true faith. " Behold, beloved reader," Living; the says Merino, " thus true faith begets

Ordinances. love and love begets obedience to the

commandments of God " (Works, ii. 246). " For this can never fail, where there is true Christian faith, there is also dying to sin, a new creature, true repentance, a sincere regenerated, un­blamabie Christian " (i. 118). " True faith which

6lmons

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

avails before God is a living and saving power which is, through the preaching of the holy Word, wrought of God in the heart, renewing, changing and regen­erating it to newness of mind " (i. 59). On the Christian ordinances Menno says: " All the rites ordained of God, both in the Old and New Testa­ment, have been instituted that our faith may be exercised and our obedience proven " (i. 34). The baptism of infants is invalid. Incidentally baptism is spoken of as the reception of " a handful of water " (i. 38, i. 124). Menno also observes that " the poor world has hitherto believed the new birth to consist in immersion in the water while the words are said, I baptize thee," etc. (ii. 215). He did not hold that believers' baptism to be valid must be administered by a representative of a church that is entirely orthodox. On the Lord's Supper his teaching concurs with that of Zwingli; he dis­approves of " open " communion.

Menno defines the Church as the assembly of those " who hear, believe, accept, and rightly ful­fil " the teachings of God's Word (ii.

4. The 345), hence a true Christian church is

Church. necessarily established on the volun­

tary principle. He says: " Faith is

the gift of God, therefore it can not be forced upon

any one by worldly authorities or by the sword."

" Tell me, kind reader, where have you in all the

days of your life read in the apostolic Scriptures

that Christ or the apostles called upon the power

of the magistracy against those who would not hear

their doctrine and obey their word? " (ii. 71). " Be­

hold how haughtily and how wickedly the princes

assume, without any awe or fear, the authority of

God and the ofce of the Holy Ghost " (i. 186).

Toleration, accordingly, means the rejection of all

persecution. Menno would have taken it as an in­

sult had he been charged with advancing the mod­

ern idea that false doctrine is, on the ground of

Christian love and forbearance, to be tolerated in

the Church. The government of the Church was

administered by the elders. Questions of faith and

practise were not to be referred to individual con­

gregations. The idea that among the early Men­

nonites " every church was a law unto itself " is

erroneous. Menno and his colaborers withdrew

from congregations that sanctioned what they be­

lieved to be unscriptural doctrine. The great mis­

sionary commission of Christ was held by Menno

to have been given to the Church; he was in fact

preeminently a missionary. With emphasis he in­

sists on the duty of the Church to care for needy

and destitute members. He testifies that notwith­

standing the relentless, bloody persecution which

had left in their care numerous widows and orphans,

and in which many had lost their possessions, no

one of the church which he represented, nor their

children, had been known or would have been per­

mitted to beg (ii. 309). The Church, according to

Menno, is the " communion of saints " in deed and

in truth; nevertheless there is always a possibility

of those having a form of godliness and denying the

power thereof being found in it. In his writings he

refereed to the fact that there was a hypocrite

even among the apostles, but insists that neither

offensive sin and transgression nor false doctrine

426

must be tolerated in the Church. Of church disci­pline he says: " In short, as a vineyard without a fence or inclosure, or a city without walls or gates, so is a church without discipline and the excommuni­cation." Members of the church were not permitted to eat or do business with those who had been ex­cluded, except in cases of emergency (I Cor. v. 11; II Thess. iii. 14). On this point both Menno and Dirk Philips wrote treatises against; the Swiss Breth­ren who disapproved of the " avoidance " of the excommunicated. The interesting history of this practise and the reasons why Menno advocated it can not be stated in a few sentences. That on his death bed he expressed regrets for the stand which he had taken in this matter, as was believed by the " Waterlanders," who were of one mind with the Swiss, is evidently a fable. In the last weeks of his life he wrote a little book which was published after his death, insisting on " avoidance ' as stringently as ever.

The swearing of oaths he believed to be forbidden by Christ. Of war he speaks as a " wicked, abom­inable business " (i. 137). Capital punishment he considered incompatible with Christian principles; he suggests confinement for life in its stead (ii. 407). Frequently he denounced the " houses of intem­perance," " the accursed drunken taverns." He was an advocate of "the simple life"; church­members who permitted themselves to drift into worldliness were strictly disciplined by the church. Menno believed the coming of Christ near, not, however, to inaugurate the millennium, but for judgment.

The old accusation of some of Menno's opponents that he denied the divine nature in Christ, an in­sinuation which was vigorously re 

g. Chris  pudiated by him, must be placed in

tology. the same category as other slanders,

such as that he upheld communism

and was the head of a revolutionary sect. He held

a peculiar doctrine on the Incarnation: " The

whole Christ, God and man, man and God, is God's

son and is of heaven" (ii. 151, Elkhart, Ind., 1871).

Not only was he truly God from eternity, but his

human nature was also of heaven and was not the

result of a creation. Of Mary's body he partook

not otherwise than as a seed of grain partakes of

the field in which it is planted (ii. 337). To assert

that he could in that case not be truly human is to

deny God's omnipotence. Had he, as regards his

humanity, " been of the impure, sinful flesh of

Adam, he would be guilty also, through the eternal

justice of God, of judgment and death. And if he

himself owed a debt, how could he pay ours ?"

That this doctrine has a tendency toward the denial

of Christ's divinity was indignantly denied by

Menno. His opinion was, on the contrary, that

what is generally considered the orthodox view of

the incarnation dishonors Christ's divinity, repre­

senting him as a creature as concerns his body.

" If the man [human nature of] Christ was of the

flesh and blood of Mary, it is manifest that he was

not God's son but a created being " (ii. 158). " That I

have ever said this [that the Word was changed into

flesh and blood] no one will, 1 believe, ever be able

to prove; nevertheless they have the effrontery to

427 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ~9lmoas

say and write such of us. I have spoken of this as the eminent apostle has taught me, namely, that the Word was made flesh " (ii. 159). " As he is the only and true Son of God, he must also have the nature of the one of whom he is, this is too plain to be controverted" (ii. 392). " Although he hum­bled himself and laid down his divine splendor, privileges, and glory, nevertheless he was God and God's Word " (ii. 164). Menno states that " there are many among us " who have never " heard or asked a word " concerning the question of the origin of Jesus' body, and also testifies that he never refers to this doctrine in his sermons, " but I teach simply and plainly that Christ Jesus is truly God and man, a Son of God and a Son of man, con­ceived of the Holy Ghost and born of the pure virgin Mary " (ii. 332). The said doctrine of the incarnation was held by the Obbenites (see MEN­NONITES) before Menno identified himself with them, and it was, according to his own confession, only after severe and prolonged mental struggles that he arrived at the conclusion that it is entirely Scriptual (ii. 330).

The supposition that the teachings of Menno and his coworkers were tinged with rationalism is with­out foundation. His faithful colaborer,

6. Relation Dirk Philips, of whom he observes that

to Ration  " Dirk and I are entirely of the same alism. mind " and whose extant writings fill a stately volume an English trans­lation is now in press occupied the same position toward rationalism as Menno, and the same is true of the Swiss Brethren. The Dutch historian Brandt asserted that the excommunication of Adam Pas­tor (q.v.) for denying the deity of Christ was the work of Dirk Philips. Others have opined that Menno was at variance with Dirk in this matter. From Pastor's Underscheit tusschen rechte leer uncle valsche leer (published in vol. v. of Bibliotheca Re­formatoria Neerlandica), it is clear that he held Menno responsible for his excommunication, and the latter testifies that Pastor was no longer of their number (ii. 96; the English translation of the pas­sage is inaccurate, see Menno Symons' Wercken, p. 312, Amsterdam, 1681). In his refutation of Pas­tor, Menno speaks of the denial of the eternal pre­existence of Christ as " a terrible blasphemy, curse, and abomination" (ii. 184). The hymn of Ludwig Haetzer (q.v.), expressing antitrinitarian senti­ments, is not found in the hymn books of Swiss and South German Anabaptists, nor of the Menno­nites. It is doubtful whether its author was rebap­tized or baptized others, although he agreed with the Anabaptists in their opposition to state churchism and on a few other points (cf. F. Roth, Augsburgs Reformationsgeschichte, pp. 221 222, 232, Munich, 1901; Heberle in TSK, 1858, p. 845). His friend Hans Denk, unlike Haetzer, a man of unimpeachable character, was an advocate of liberalistic sentiments although not an antitrinitarian, and became the leader of an Anabaptist party called " Denkians," but before his death retracted his former teaching on the necessity of rebaptism. Unfortunately Menno and the Mennonites have sometimes been judged from the writings of such men, with whom in fact they had nothing to do.

Touching the position of Menno and his friends with respect to the leading Reformers, it is to be noted that Menno's personal estimate of Luther was congenial and appreciative, far

q. Relation more so than the opinion entertpined

to the by Luther concerning any Anabaptists.

Reformers. Menno freely acknowledges that " the Lord has effected much good through Luther's first writings " (Works, i. 29). He severely criticizes Luther for permitting himself to lose sight of the principle of toleration which he had originally advocated. The Reformation, so far as it was iden­tified with state churchism, was in Menno's opinion quite superficial: it leas, says Menno, not brought a change in the life of the people and its founda­tions were not laid along Scriptural lines. In the Lutheran states of central and northern Germany the priests were given orders to accept the new standards of faith and practise prescribed by the heads of the State. The priests, as a rule, accepted the new order of things and the populace followed them (no other creed being tolerated by the civil authorities) with the exception of those who ac­cepted Anabaptist teachings. If we may believe Menno's testimony, both shepherds and flock con­tinued " with few exceptions " in their old incon­sistent life. There can be no doubt that Menno was eye witness of much that must give him an un­favorable opinion of State Church Reformation. It is interesting to notice his evident surprise upon forming the acquaintance of Johannes a Lasco (q.v.), that a man of his piety was a representative of Zwing­lianism. Menno addresses him in one of his books as his " beloved, holy brother." In his view it was an inconsistency that while the pope was held to be antichrist, his ordination was accepted as valid. " The little gods of Babylon," says Menno, had been abandoned, but that which was in fact responsible for prevailing superficiality and inconsistencies had been left untouched.

Menno, in his extant writings, never mentions or even alludes to any of the great leaders of the Swiss Brethren. Was he not informed

8. Relation of the history of the Swiss and South

to the Swiss German Anabaptists ? Is there a his 

Brethren. torical connection between the Swiss

and the Melchiorites and Obbenites,

and if such is the case, did Menno know of it? In

vain is an answer to these questions sought in

Menno's writings. Of Melchior Hoffmann it is known

that he purposely ignored the Swiss and South

German Anabaptists, it is doubtful whether he was

ever connected with them. The Obbenites had,

with the exception of the doctrine of the incarna­

tion, discarded those teachings which had separated

the Melchiorites from the Swiss Brethren, and

Menno's insistence on the " avoidance " of the ex­

communicated was, as has been stated, not approved

by the Swiss. He was well acquainted with the

teachings of the Swiss and South German Anabap­

tists. It is evident from his writings that there is

no direct historical connection between his people

and certain medieval sects, but this, it may be ob­

served, does not exclude the supposition that such

a connection existed between the Swiss Brethren

and older sects although Menno was clearly not

Simons

Simony

THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG

428

aware of it. He says, " Soon after the death of the such as choosing a king and what they taught con­

apostles, through the influence of the unenlightened cerning the kingdom, the sword, polygamy, worldly

bishops, trust in outward works was permitted to conformity, and the like abominations and infamy

take the place of trust in Jesus Christ " (Wercken, p. we reject and hate with all our soul " (i. 197). " So

51, Amsterdam, 1681). " The understanding of the it is in your instance, 0 ye mad ones," he addresses

holy gospel, which was lost for many centuries, has them, " (forgive me, for it is the truth that I write).

been found again." " May the holy city and temple The prophets you read according to Jewish under­

which lay desolate for many centuries, be again standing, the doctrine of Christ and the apostles,

rebuilt," etc. Menno never mentions the Waldenses. you say, is all fulfilled and pretend that there is

Dirk Philips makes mention of them in his En  now another dispensation," etc. (i. 97). " They

chiridion, but his observations show that he was have justified open adultery under the cloak of the

not well informed concerning their teachings. custom of the Jewish fathers, together with other

Concerning Menno Simons' relation to the Man  infamy of which a true Christian must be appalled

sterites (see MUENSTER, ANABAPTISTS IN) it is first and ashamed " (i. 227). " Is it not a grievous error

of all to be noted that not all Anabaptists of the that you suffer yourselves to be so wretchedly be­

Netherlands who disregarded the principle of non  witched by such worthless men, and so lamentably

resistance were followers of John of Leyden (see misled from one corrupt sect into another; first

ANABAPTISTS; MUENSTER, ANABAPTISTS IN). Of Minsterite, then of Batenburg, now Davidist [fol­

his own brother, who in many histor  lowers of Jan David Joris (q.v.)], and thus from

g. Relation ical works figures as a Manaterite, Beelzebub to Lucifer and from Belial to Behemoth "

to Milnater Menno says: " My poor brother has (i. 94). How many innocent hearts have they

Anabaptists. erred only in this, that he undertook deceived l How many poor souls have * they ae­

to defend his faith with the fist and duced I . What great shame have they brought upon

to oppose violence by violence " (Works, ii. 101). God's Wordl What abominations have some of

It must be remembered that an unprecedented per  them committed under a pious appearancel How

secution was waged against the dissenters. The great cause have they given to the poor, blind

law of the empire demanded that all who had sub  magistrates who have, alas! no understanding of

mitted to rebaptism and were unwilling to recant the holy word, to shed innocent blood " (i. 96).

must die, and this law dates from the year 1529 After Menno's renunciation of Romanism and

 about four years prior to the rise of the Man  his identification with the religious body which he

sterites. Very many had lost their lives. The Ana  so well represented, it was impossible for him to

baptists were in continuous danger of death and labor in public. He was an outlaw and a fugitive

under temptation to take the sword in self defense. although, through the leniency of local authorities,

While Menno was yet a priest a large number of he found it possible to sojourn com­

dissenters, among them his brother, sought refuge lo. Victim paratively long in a few places. Had,

in the " Old Cloister " near Bolaward and defended of however, any appointment for a meet­

it against a contingent of troops. " The poor er  Intolerance. ing in which he or one of his friends

ring flock," says Menno, " which erred because they was to appear been publicly announced,

had no true shepherds, after many severe edicts, he would unfailingly have been apprehended at the

killing and slaughter, came together near my place appointed place. In a number of instances the local

of residence, in a place called Old Cloister, and, authorities would apparently have tolerated him

alas, through the godless doctrine of Minster, and his friends, had they not feared the vengeance

contrary to Christ's spirit, word, and example, of the provincial or imperial government. Menno

drew the sword to defend themselves, which the knew full well that only as long as such magistrates

Lord commanded Peter to put up into the sheath " could urge the excuse that they did not know of

(i. 4). Although these people followed the Man  his whereabouts would they refrain from putting

steritea to the extent of taking the sword, they must forth efforts to have him apprehended. He had a

not be held responsible for the highly offensive few private discussions with Zwinglian theologians,

practises originated by " King " John of Leyden such as Johannes a Lasco, Martinus micronius

at Minster; in fact even many of those who had (qq.v.), and Gellius Faber, who had obligated them­

accepted the latter's leadership and had gone to selves to observe strict silence concerning these con­

Minster were loath to follow him all the way. When ferences. In several of his books Menno asks his

John, after long and persistent effort, had persuaded Protestant friends to arrange for a public debate

Bernhard Rothnlann and the other preachers in with him, obtaining for him a safe conduct from

Minster (see MUENSTER, ANABAPTISTS IN) that po  the government, but this desire was never granted

lygamy was the Scriptural course for the " New him. Even Count von Ahlefeldt, who permitted

Israel," a rebellion occurred among his followers him to live on his estate at Wiistenfelde in Holstein

within the walls of the besieged city. Mollenhecke, (where Menno died in peace), would in all probabil­

the leader of the resisting party, and his adherents ity, had the matter been brought to the attention

were mercilessly put to the sword by " King " of the imperial authorities, not have admitted that

John. Of Minaterite teaching and practise Me., he knowingly gave shelter to this " heresiarch."

speaks invariably in severest terms of condemns  Toleration for Menno and his people prevailed

tion. He denounced John of Leyden as a blas  neither on Roman Catholic nor Protestant terri­

phemer, seducer, and worthless character, notwith  tory. He complains bitterly that " not only among

standing his unusual gifts as a leader. He says of Papists and Turks, but among those who boast of

the Mansterites: " Their seditious abominations, the holy word 11 and " in their first writings said

429 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA s oamy

much of faith, that it is the gift of God and that it must not be forced upon any one by the sword of iron " (i. 196) whoever refused to accept the creed of the State was relentlessly persecuted. Even the ruler of Saxony and sovereign of Luther, Elector John Frederick, treated " Anabaptism " as a cap­ital crime. In 1536 a number of Anabaptists were beheaded at Jena in Saxony, upon Melanchthon's advice, for no other cause than error in doctrine. Menno says: " I seek . . . the praise of the Lord and my salvation and the salvation of many souls. For this I, my poor feeble wife and little children have for eighteen years endured extreme anxiety, oppression, affliction, misery, and persecution, and wherever we sojourned, we were in fear and dan­ger of life. Yea, when the preachers [of the state churches] repose on easy beds and downy pillows, we generally must hide ourselves in secluded cor­ners . . . and when the dogs bark, it may mean that the catch polls are upon us here. Whilst they are gloriously rewarded for their services with large incomes and easy times, our recompense and por­tion must be fire, sword, and death " (i. 7).

The writings of Menno Simons and Dirk (Theo­dor) Philips are the principal sources for the study of the principles and aims of the most prominent dissenting party of the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland of Reformation times. Not only were these men the spokesmen of their immediate fol­lowers, but the Swiss Brethren were of one mind with them on all vital points of doctrine and prac­tise. A view of the Reformation which fails to take due account of the great body of Christians which attempted, with unexcelled devotion to principle  the Reformed historian Ernst Muller speaks of them as " a church of martyrs " the restoration of the Church to its primitive purity and power; which, at variance with the leading Reformers, insisted on the voluntary principle and separation of Church and State, must necessarily be inadequate.

JOHN HoRscH.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographies have been written by A. M. Cramer, Amsterdam, 1837 (still the best); C. Harder, Konigsberg, 1846; B. C. Roosen, Leipsic, 1848; Browne, Philadelphia, 1853; F. Bastian, Strasburg, 1857; and C. Fleischer, Amsterdam, 1892. See also the literature under MENNONITES.