Semitic Lanrnsses

Social Service THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 474

so as to meet multiform distress in many lands and races demanded obviously great organizing power. When General Booth issued his scheme of social re­form In Darkest England (London, 1890), the Army had already officers and others engaged wholly in the work to the number of 4,506 in the United King­dom and 4,910 in the United States and the rest of the world, and it possessed Shelters, Rescue Homes, a Prison Gate Mission, and other institu­tions. The Church Army is a somewhat similar organization founded in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson Carlile (q.v.), a Church of England clergyman, rector of St. Mary at Hill in London.

As stated above, the monastic system came to an end in Scotland about twenty years after its over­throw in England. In John Knox's work on eccle­siastical government, entitled The Book of Discipline, it is recommended that the revenues

io. Move  of the old Church should be applied

meats in among other things to the maintenance

Scotland. of education in the parish and burgh

schools, and to the relief of the aged

and infirm poor. The able bodied poor were, ac­

cording to his scheme, to be compelled to work.

In 1562, the General Assembly of the Kirk peti­

tioned for provision to be made for the poor. Prac­

tical effect, however, was not given to Knox's

recommendations respecting education until an Act,

passed in 1696, stipulated for the maintenance of a

school in every parish at the cost of the heritors,

or landowners. Nearly three centuries after Knox,

another great divine of the Scottish Presbyterian

church led the van in the reform of poor relief,

which took place in Scotland as in England, though

not upon identical lines, in the first half of last

century. This was Thomas Chalmers (q.v.), a man

of wide interests who had added to his professional

training in theology the study of natural science

and of political economy. Placed in charge suc­

cessively of the large parishes of Tron and St. John

in the city of Glasgow, then rapidly growing into

the commercial capital of Scotland, he organized,

with the help of a number of zealous lay coadjutors,

the administration of relief to the poor of the

parish on such lines that, while the total expendi­

ture was reduced. from $8,000 to $1,400, "this

result," according to Professor Blaikie, one of his

biographers, " was accompanied not by a diminu­

tion but an increase of comfort and morality.

Drunkenness decreased, and parents took an in­

creased interest in the welfare of their children."

The influence of Chalmers' experience and teaching

in this department of philanthropy was wide spread,

and its fruits may still be seen in the extensive

ramifications of the charity organization system on

both sides of the Atlantic and of the Pacific.

The movement in favor of Total Abstinence (q.v.) found in Ireland one of its earliest champions. This was Theobald Mathew (q.v.), a Fran 

ce. Total ciscan friar in Cork. Visiting much

Abstinence. among the poor, he became impressed with the evils of intemperance, and, having taken the pledge himself at the instance of some Non conformist friends, he proceeded to preach what he already practised. Possessed of an engaging personality, his influence was immense

with his fellow countrymen. Judges on assize com­mented on the diminution in crime. The ex­chequer officials had to comment upon the diminu­tion in revenue, for the receipts from the excise on spirits fell by one third. Unfortunately the famine diverted his energies to raising funds for the suf­ferers. He visited New York and Washington, and prosecuted his campaign there between 1849 and 1851.

Enjoying ample land room with general pros­perity, the over seas self governing countries'of the empire have so far escaped the necessity of dis 

covering new solutions for distress in rs. The their midst. Local adaptations of

Colonies. machinery originated in older countries

 the societies founded by St. Vincent de Paul (q.v.) from France, the Salvation Army and the Young Men's and Young Women's Christian Associations from England, and the Women's Christian Temperance Union from the United States  appear to have proved adequate hitherto to supplement the governmental activities of a democratic rdgime. A great deal of quiet benevo­lence and neighborliness is exhibited in the ready adoption of orphans and destitute children into private families.

Within the last forty years the desire for social reform in Great Britain has taken three new shapes, those, namely, of charity organization, of tenement reform, and, through reform of tenements, the ref­ormation of the tenants, and of settlement work. While great public spirit and much genuine human sympathy have been displayed in these movements, and while, in all three, zealous clergymen and other church members may be found taking a share, they, in common with the earlier hospital movement, have been too little the product of ecclesiastical or definitely religious leadership to come within the scope of the present treatment.

It may be that philanthropy is on the verge of passing into a further stage. From causes which were glanced at in the opening paragraphs, law, state craft and diplomacy, medicine and literature, as well as education, were once subordinate but almost exclusive domains of the Church. To be

able to read was proof presumptive 13. Pros  that a man was a priest, or at least in

pects. minor orders. The four first pur­

suits have, of course, long since passed

into the hands of the laity, and education is passing

now. At the present moment, departments which

hitherto have formed the realm of philanthropy

are in process of annexation by the State itself.

Already school children are fed, septuagenarians

pensioned, and employment bureaus and relief works

subsidized at the public cost. Proposals embodying

a drastic alteration of the poor law are being ac­

tively urged. If they are carried out in their

entirety the drain on private resources will react

first of all on the funds available for purposes of

voluntary charity, while at the same time few de­

partments of benevolence will remain outside the

control of the State or of municipalities. The trans­

ference of power from the classes supplying benefac­

tors to the classes supplying beneficiaries, already

to a great extent effected, is likely to accelerate

476 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA social Service

this process, of which the attendant dangers are, obvious. It can only be hoped that the motives which have hitherto inspired philanthropic action will in the future inspire the conscientious and sym­pathetic discharge of their new duties on the part of the central and local administrations and their officials. In this connection the influence of the Christian Social Union, a body under the guidance of Bishop Gore of Birmingham, Canon Scott Hol­land, and other distinguished Anglicans both lay and clerical, which studies social and economic problems and seeks to control industrial and com­mercial relations in accordance with the principles enunciated in the New Testament and by the Church, may have a great future open to it.

C. H. d'E. LEPPINGTON.

III. Philanthropy in America: The develop­ment of philanthropy in the modern western world is illustrated by the parable of the seed growing secret­ly, " First the blade, then the ear, then

x. Colonial the full corn in the ear." In the pioneer Practise. communities there is little poverty and no pauperism; the few who need assist­ance are cared for by their neighbors; organized charity is not needed. The churches in the early New England colonies included practically the whole population, and any of their members who were in need or in suffering were relieved by the voluntary compassion of the brotherhood. As the communities grew older, and families decayed, and the number of the defective and the decrepit and the helpless multiplied, some communal provision was made for the care of the poor; each town con­tracted with some citizen for the keeping of its de­pendents. Later, poorhouses were erected and yearly appropriations were made, at the town meetings, for the support of the poor. In these poorhouses the hopelessly insane were also con­fined, no provision yet being made for restorative treatment. Outside of New England the county was generally charged with the care of the poor; the almshouses and infirmaries were county insti­tutions. Thus it will be seen that the tendency pointed out above (I., § 7) as prevailing among the Lutheran and Reformed churches at the time of the Reformation was active in the American com­munities. The care of the poor was turned over to the public authorities. When the town and the church were practically one this was of no impor­tance; but when the standing order was disestab­lished, and the secular community was discriminated from the religious community, this virtual abandon­ment by the church of one of its primary functions was a serious matter for the church and perhaps for the poor.

At the present day, therefore, the American churches do not consider themselves wholly responsi­ble for the care of the poor of the com 

b. Church munity. The same thing is true of

and Volun  Great Britain. This work has been tary Philan  largely taken over by the civic author 

thropies. ities by the town or the parish or the

city or the county. The churches do,

however, find work of this kind to do. Many

churches have in their own membership those

who, from misfortune or accident, are in want, and

something is done for the relief of these, though, even here, the ministry often lacks much of being all that could be desired. The churches, also, through mission Sunday schools and other such agencies, extend their acquaintance among the poor aad the unfortunate, and thus the rich and the poor are brought together and want is supplied and sorrow comforted. Services of this nature are not noised abroad, but it is probable that the amount of help thus quietly extended to needy per­sons is considerable. A great variety of voluntary philanthropies are also maintained in every popu­lous town or city. Hospitals, homes for the aged, orphanages, cr6ches,. Magdalen asylums, societies for the relief of the poor in their homes, free dis­pensaries, diet kitchens, convalescent homes, dis­trict nursing organizations, social settlements, and many other such organized methods of compassion and friendship are everywhere in operation. By these voluntary philanthropies a large part of the charity of the community is administered. These are, in good part, the inspiration of the churches; most of the workers in them are church members. Generally these voluntary charities are undenom­inational; representatives of all the churches unite in maintaining them; they furnish a grateful occar sion for the manifestation of Christian unity.

The administration of this voluntary philan­thropy by the churches and the various charitable organizations, is apt to be defective in two ways; there is, first, much overlapping, and

3. Defects unscrupulous mendicants are often

Remedied able to secure aid from several differ 

by Organi  ent sources at the same time; and,

zation. secondly, the relief is apt to be ren­

dered without adequate investigation,

and upon sentimental and emotional, rather than

practical, considerations, so that habits of mendi­

cancy are encouraged and the character of the re­

cipients is damaged. For these reasons the organ­

ization of the voluntary charities has been found

necessary, so, that cooperation migfit be secured

and relief be administered by more rational and

conservative methods. The " Charity Organiza­

tion Societies " or " Associated Charities " have

been, for the last quarter of a century, effective

agencies in the improvement of the methods of

charitable relief. They have not always been able

to secure so large a degree of cooperation as they

have sought, for there are many sentimental per­

sons in the churches and the charitable societies

who have but dim comprehension of the amount

of harm that may be done by fostering mendicancy,

and who are more disturbed by a tale of physical

discomfort than by the spectacle of a ruined charac­

ter. But the principle of the charity organization

societies, " Not alms but a friend," is the sound

Christian principle; the aim is to stimulate self­

respect, self reliance, industry, and frugality; to

give temporary relief when that is needed, but,

above all, to help the poor to help themselves.

Much criticism has been bestowed on this work by

those who view the matter superficially; these

organizations have sometimes been called " socie­

ties for the prevention of charity." It is quite

probable that the repressive features of the work

Social Service THE NEW SCHAFF HERZOG 478

philanthropic work in America at the present time

are somewhat chaotic; the work is not well sys­

tematized; there is much conffict of

g. Principles jurisdictions and much confusion of

of Work methods; there is great need of some

revision of the entire program of char­

itable relief. The principles which should govern

this administration have been somewhat roughly

indicated in this survey. (1) It is important that

the State should more clearly define its own phil­

anthropic function; that it should determine how

much it can wisely undertake in behalf of the de­

pendent classes. The institutional work in which

it is now widely engaged should, for the most part,

be carried forward. If public outdoor relief is to be

attempted this relief should be given in such a way

as not to demoralize the recipients. The work to be

done in such cases is largely the repair or the re­

building of damaged character. It ought to be in

the hands of those who have some skill in the res­

toration of souls. If the State can not furnish offi­

cials who know how to save men and women, it

would better leave this work to be done by others.

But it will still be necessary that the law stand

near to help the volunteer workers. There is many

a broken family the wreck of which is caused by

the brutality and dissipation of the husband and

father, and the wisest help will fail to lift the fam­

ily out of misery unless he can be separated from

them and subjected to a discipline in which he

may recover his manhood. He ought also to be

kept at productive labor and his net earnings turned

over to his family. Charity workers are constantly

meeting complications of this sort in which the

power of the State must be invoked for the protec­

tion of the weak and the enforcement of conjugal

or parental responsibility. If, therefore, such co­

operation as this between the State and the volun.

teer workers is to continue, the terms upon which

it is carried on should be explicitly defined by law.

(2) It is also needful that the churches should come

to a clear understanding of their relation to this

entire problem of philanthropy. If they have in­

spired the commonwealth to undertake these works

of compassion they have done well, but their work

is not yet done; it is hardly conceivable that an

institution which represents Jesus Christ in the

world should ever be able to discharge itself from

responsibility for the poor, the sick, and the un­

fortunate. It has no business on its hands more

urgent than this; it can never convince the world

of the genuineness of its commission unless it is ad­

dressing itself intelligently and efficiently to this

task. (3) The churches of every town or city should

recognize their joint responsibility for the care of

all the poor and the miserable and the unfortunate

of their community. If the State has taken over

some portion of it, still the churc~es are responsi­

ble for seeing that the work of the State is hu­

manely done. This is a work that can not be

done by the churches without systematic coopera­

tion. If there were no other reason for the union

of the churches of the community, this would be

reason enough. The Christian people of every city

are confronted by poverty, sickness, distress, and

misfortune. They can not count themselves dis 

have sometimes been over emphasized, but the

need of such discriminations and restraints can not

be gainsaid, and the efficiency of our voluntary

charities largely depends on such cooperation and

regulation as the charity organization societies

seek to secure. n

The greater part of philanthropic work, however, is done by public agencies. The Christian religion has filled modern society with what Benjamin Kidd

calls " a great fund of altruistic feel­4. Public ing," which finds expression in a va­Administra  riety of public philanthropies. To

Lion of Aid. that extent the State has been Chris­tianized. " All of us," cooperating through civil institutions and public agencies, are seeking to care for the poor and the sick and the unfortunate. Let it not be forgotten that it is the enforcement of the teachings of Jesus Christ by his Church that has brought this to pass. Such results are not visible in non Christian countries. The public philanthropies are largely institutional. Hospitals, almshouses and infirmaries, asylums for the insane, the blind, the deaf, the feeble minded, the epileptic, homes for orphan children, sanatori­ums for the victims of tuberculosis all such insti­tutions are provided for the most part gratuitously for the helpless poor and the unfortunate. Much of this work is of such a character that it could not well be left to voluntary agencies; the burden of it ought to be borne by the entire community. That the community is willing to bear it that public opinion requires the imposition of this charge upon the public treasury is a signal triumph of Christian civilization.

The legitimacy and necessity of what is techni­cally called indoor relief are thus apparent. But the State also undertakes to administer relief to the poor in their own homes, and for this service it is ill qualified. If, indeed, such conditions as prevail in the German cities could be secured if the mu­nicipality could enlist a large force of its most in­telligent and competent men and women to serve as visitors, this work might be done by the public with the best results. In Berlin more than 3,000 visitors of the poor are appointed by the city. They are selected with great care, are men of character, and are compelled to serve. The districts are small and the service is not onerous, but it is not optional; the penalty of refusal or neglect is disfranchisement. With such a force of visitors the city can dispense relief intelligently. But it is doubtful whether any such service as this could be secured by an Amer­ican city; the investigating force is always absurdly inadequate and generally incompetent; the officials charged with this duty are frequently careless and sometimes corrupt; the funds are used for political purposes, and, as a rule, the needy are neglected and impostors get the lion's share. For this reason some American cities have abolished public outdoor relief and leave the care of the people in their own homes to voluntary charity, sometimes employing the associated charities or other voluntary organizations to do the work of investigation, and granting relief upon their recom­mendation.

It thus becomes evident that the conditions of

477 1 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA 8oMs1 servfae

ciples of Jesus Christ if they are indifferent to this call. And they can not meet this responsibility unless they unite. This is the summons to the or­ganization of the municipal church, which must include all who call themselves Christians. Some­thing which might thus be described ought to exist in every Christian community. The responsibility of this body for the care of the needy and the help­less can not be gainsaid. No creed is needed for such an organization; it should be simply " the union of all who love in the service of all who suffer." (4) In many communities the nucleus of such an organization already exists. There is a " Federation of the Churches," or a " United Brotherhood," which holds occasional union meet­ings, but sometimes finds it hard to justify its exist­ence. Let it envisage this task. Let it assume the responsibility for the philanthropies of the city. (5) When it is manifest that the churches are united for this purpose, it will not be difficult to bring the local charities into cooperation. Most of the workers in these local charities are members of the churches and they will recognize the right of the municipal church to take charge of this business. Thus the entire field would be covered, every section of the city would be supervised, and the work would be so divided among the churches and the other or­ganizations that there would be no overlapping, and no failure to reach and relieve cases of real need. (6) The administration of outdoor relief would thus be made intelligent and adequate; the churches by uniting would recover for themselves that sacred and vital function which through their divisions they have so largely permitted to lapse, and they would regain the opportunity of exerci­sing that friendship which is the primary reason for their existence. How  greatly this would strengthen their hold upon those portions of the community which are now largely alienated from them needs not to be said. The financial burden, if all the churches shared it, would be very light; the actual amount of money needed for the relief of want in American communities is not large; the help that is needed is moral, rather than material. Every poor family needs a friend, and in the ma­jority of cases the less there is of financial assistance the better for all concerned. (7) This municipal church would also put itself into closest sympa­thetic relations with all the voluntary philanthropic institutions of the city which are studying these problems, and seeking to make their service more intelligent and efficient. All these institutions are dependent on the churches, and there is great need that their relation to the churches be made more vital and organic. The municipal church would have a committee in charge of the interests of each one of them, watching its work, giving sympathetic counsel and support, and reporting its needs to the churches. (8) The municipal church would also establish helpful relations with the municipal char­itable and reformatory institutions, with hospitals, children's homes, work houses, juvenile courts, jails, and prisons. Over all the unfortunate in these places it would exercise a watchful care. There would be an efficient committee over each of them observing the conditions, studying the problems,

and keeping the Christian community thoroughly informed respecting them. It is not to be assumed that this supervision of public institutions would be necessarily critical or inquisitorial; it would normally be sympathetic and helpful; it would only seek to bring the good will of the Christian commu­nity into close and practical relations with some of its neediest members.

It is a deplorable fact that the organizations which represent Jesus Christ in our modern com­munities have no methods of keeping themselves in touch with the inmates of these public charitable and correctional institutions. They have passed all that business over to the State, and have divested themselves of responsibility for it: It is a faithless performance. In that impressive parable of the judgment the Son of man arraigns those who are brought before him, because, as he says, " I was sick and in prison and ye visited me not . . . . In­asmuch as ye did it not to one of these my breth­ren, even these least, ye did it not to me." Until the Christian Church in every city or town has put itself into relations of practical friendship with all these classes, it is resting under a heavy condem­nation.

Such are some of the pathological phases of the philanthropy which the Christian Church in the modern community may be expected to practise.

But the true philanthropy is not 6. The merely remedial. It seeks to discover

Church's and remove the causes of misery.

Higher And the Christian Church has, for so 

Duties. ciety as well as for the individual, not

only a message of redemption but also a message of regeneration. It must cleanse the sources from which want and sickness and vice are flowing. It is futile to go on relieving all these so­cial maladies and leave untouched the causes which constantly produce them. And the municipal church, when it has once fairly grappled with its great tasks, will feel that its most important work, after all, is to give us a new heaven and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness. (1) It will discover that the sickness and physical debility to which it is trying to minister are in considerable part the result of bad housing conditions, of un­sanitary tenements and overcrowding, and it will turn the light on these conditions and stir up a public sentiment which shall abolish nuisances and pestilence breeders, and secure healthy habitations for the people. (2) It will bring home to the Chris­tian conscience of the community the fact that in most of our cities multitudes of children have no accessible playgrounds but the streets, and that the conditions there surrounding them are unfavor­able to the development of sound character. Abun­dant evidence shows that the streets are the sem­inaries of vice and crime. Little that is normal in the life of a child is permitted in them; the tend­ency of the associations of the street is toward that which is abnormal and criminal. Safe and well­regulated playgrounds are a vital need of city boys and girls and far less costly than the reform schools to which so many of them are later sent. A few intelligent men and women have discovered the importance of this provision and are working to