The Role of New Media in Protest Organisation

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and Social Movements

The following paragraphs explain the use of social media by NGOs in terms of the organisation of the movements. Concentration lies on the characteristics and innovations of Web 2.0 and their advantages for NGOs to gain access to their constituencies through online media.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs), like the internet and e-mail or mobile phones have influenced the ways of communication between activists (Garrett, 2006: 1), as they adapt the technology to their own purpose (Cammaerts a., 2005: 73). ICTs help in the processes of communication, promotion and mobilisation of movement activities. Especially the speed, low cost and wide dissemination make it an attractive alternative (Juris, 2005; Della Porta & Mosca, 2005, Seo, Kim & Yang, 2009). Especially transnational social movements benefit from the facilitated communication structures; nevertheless, also on a national level ICTs are now widely used.

While the possibilities for interactivity continue to increase; “websites are no longer novel” as Ward, Gibson and Lusoli (2003: 657) state. Instead we have Web 2.0. The concept of Web 2.0 (O’Reilly, 2005), with its numerous applications and services allows users to share information and media with other users without high levels of expertise. The possibility for users to create content is what distinguishes the Web 2.0 from the Web 1.0 of static websites with a main purpose of information. This transforms the user from a consumer of information and online products to a producer that shares his products with others and participates (Harrison & Barthel, 2009: 160). Social network sites (SNS), such as Facebook, Wikipedia, or Twitter, in particular facilitate this.

Boyd and Ellison’s analysis (2007: 1) offers three characteristics of social network sites, which differentiate them from traditional websites. Users can construct a personal (semi-) profile (1), present a list with other users they are connected with on this profile (2), and finally look through and see their list of connections and those of others (3). Often users do not use these network possibilities to meet new users, but are connected to those that they already know through the offline world. With those they share information, links and videos, organise events, and participate in user-to-user communication. Furthermore, not only private users are allowed to sign up to social network sites, but any kind of institution can create profiles, such as public organisations, politicians, companies or music bands for example. This opportunity has been used by many organisations allowing them to communicate directly with their “friend”-base over SNS. Non-governmental organisations and social movement organisations have also grabbed this chance in order to connect to their constituency in the online world. This allows them to promote events and discuss issues with their followers on a direct basis. This means that also casual, non-paying followers of an organisation become an important asset when mobilising for specific events, as SNS now allow organisations to contact these people in cost-efficient and fast ways directly and not only through traditional media channels (Chadwick, 2006). The advantage for users is that they can subscribe as followers or fans to exactly those organisations and issues that interest them and get that information that fits their individual interest. Therefore, a more personalised identification with the issue is possible (Bennett & Segerberg, 2009: 3).

The internet also allows organisations to skip traditional media as the mediator that communicates between them and society. In his book “For a critique of the Political Economy of the Sign”, Baudrillard criticises the mass media for mediating and thus changing meanings of public events. Especially regarding the students’ protests in France in 1968, the media had a central role in spreading the protest across the country, yet reduced it to a single meaning and so “neutralized the local, transversal, spontaneous forms of action” (Baudrillard, 1981: 176). Instead, Baudrillard finds that “the real revolutionary media” was those media produced by the protesters, such as posters, notices, walls and the spoken word on the street, “everything that was an immediate inscription, given and returned, spoken and answered, mobile in the same space and time, reciprocal and antagonistic“ (176). The street thus becomes the alternative to mass media, as it is not reporting from a distance but right with the action, not turning it into a spectacle. Therefore, the immediacy of interaction becomes important for Baudrillard, the spoken and immediately answered, just like authentic speech (Deluca & Peebles, 2002: 130). Baudrillard treats written communication as if it is spoken, because its authenticity makes it more valuable than mass media. Although communication, especially in the online world, but also offline (mobile phones) is now increasingly becoming mediated, as it runs through the filter of a medium, Baudrillard’s concept can be expanded to the online sphere. Especially SNS can be interpreted as modern street posters, in electronic form, through which the real communication takes place. Twitter and Facebook offer immediate communication, similar to authentic speech, and events are placarded on Facebook walls. On Twitter, it is possible to refer posts to certain other users and thus create personal messages that are still accessible by the masses. Communication through Facebook and Twitter escapes the distortion of the mass media and can potentially reach even more people than traditional street posters could. This shows that immediate communication is possible, close to the audience/user/protester. Social network sites thus have a similar role to posters in Baudrillard’s time, yet they offer even more personalisation and allow for real answers in real time. By using SNS for promoting their movement activities, NGOs could enhance their communication with the public, as they can avoid the distortion of their message by channels of mass media.

1. ICTs and political engagement

Research into the impact of new media on the democratic process has been numerous, yet no consensual result has been found. Some researchers do not see a profound improvement or decline of democracy (Kenix, 2008), apart from the possibility to access more information, whereas others see slight improved engagements with online participation (Xenos & Bennett, 2007). More recent research into the link between SNS and civil and political participation has shown that SNS engage people in the democratic process (Zhang, Johnsons, Seltzer and Belchert, 2010: 77) and offer information gathering (Zhang et al., 2010: 80). They conclude that civic engagement (activities with community concerns through non-governmental means) is positively influenced by the use of SNS, but that political participation (activites related to electing officials or developing public policy) is not considerably improved, which Zhang et al. (2010: 87) relate to the nature of SNS as platforms for maintaining relationships and encourage community building.

Still, only a small fraction of the world population has access to the internet and studies show that mostly people who are already politically interested use the opportunity to engage politically through ICTs (Ward, Gibson & Lusoli, 2003: 654). Although penetration of the possibilities of information gathering online is low, ICTs still facilitate these processes for those that are interested (van Aelst & Walgrave, 2004: 97). But it is not only the consumer of information who benefits, the providers do too. Social movement organisations and political groups that rely on small funding benefit from the low costs and the opportunity to collaborate internationally that the internet provides (SOURCE -> Caemmerts). It should not be forgotten, that the internet is only the medium through which potential democratic processes are enabled, but is eventually dependent on the agents that use it and their intentions (Fenton, 2008: 47).

2.