Vi. Bölöni Farkas Sándor (1795-1842) and his Travels

X. Anglo-Hungarian Relationships Between 1945-48. The Role of the British Council

IN THIS SECTION, we will cover:

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  the situation of English after the First World War in Hungary
  
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  Hungary’s position on the map of Europe in the given period (Seton-Watson vs. Lord Rothermere)
  
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  the reviving diplomatic and cultural connections after 1945, and their dramatic decline in the 50s
  
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  the main figures of English and American Studies in Hungary after the 1960s
  

the role of the British Council in building relationships From the point of view of Great Britain, at least politically, Hungary never played a central role. Hungary was dealt with only occasionally, as part of the European balance of power. Otherwise, the country was treated as belonging to the Habsburg-German-Russian sphere of influence. Only the revolution of 1848/49 managed to break this one-sided attitude, after which a certain sympathy could be felt towards Hungary.

After the Treaty of Trianon, the basic sentiment was sympathy from both sides (unlike that of towards the French). There were dissenting voices, though. In their articles published in The Times, Henry Wickham Steed and Robert William Seton-Watson explained their views according to which Hungary was constantly oppressing its Slavic and Saxon minorities and its dismemberment was entirely justifiable. Seton-Watson dealt with the minority question already before the war, and wrote books on the theme (Racial Problems in Hungary, 1908; The Southern Slav Question, 1911, Europe in the Melting-Pot, 1919). From 1917 to 1918 he served on the Intelligence Bureau of the War Cabinet in the Enemy Propaganda Department, where he was responsible for British propaganda to the peoples of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was mainly (the rather controversial) activity of Steed and Seton-Watson coupled with the French, Romanian, Czech, Serbian and Croatian propaganda that helped to fix the image of Hungary as a “guilty nation.”

In spite of these tendencies, there was a conscious effort on the part of the Hungarian politicians in the 1920s and 1930s to orientate towards England and the Anglo-Saxon world in general. This served two purposed: to counterbalance the German influence and the growing Nazi influence on Hungary; and to seek remedy for the injustices of Trianon from British politicians (and public figures as well, some of whom embraced the Hungarian cause, like Lord Rothermere, who launched a campaign “Justice for Hungary” with his article “Hungary’s Place Under the Sun”). Hungarian eminent figures of science were also seeking these contacts. Teleki Pál, the geographer and later prime minister, used his scientific connections to look for help, just like Kosáry Domokos, historian, who received a scholarship to London in 1938 (he was the first president of the Hungarian Academy after 1989).

Despite all efforts, these attempts to orientate towards the Atlantic Powers failed. Hungary was stigmatized once again in 1945 as a “guilty nation.” The first diplomatic contacts became possible after the horrors of the Second World War, in November, 1945. The missions and embassies arriving in Budapest also helped to build these contacts. The official diplomatic relations were established on 16 September 1947.

The strongest relationships were built in the field of sciences. The Council of Pázmány Péter University (later ELTE) decided, on 20 July 1945, to invite British scholars and Hungarian scientists living in Britain to give lectures. Out of the 89 scholarships offered by the National Scholarship Committee, 10 marked Great Britain as a destination. The British Council also had a great role in the revitalisation of Anglo-Hungarian contacts. Out of scholars, the following well-known personages were offered British scholarships in 1946: the biochemist Kovásznai László, the scholar of law Szladits Károly, the literary historians Berg Pál, Maller Sándor and Lutter Tibor, the chemist Gergely János, the architect Mololy Elemér. They went to the University of London, Cambridge, or Leeds. Szent-Györgyi Albert, the reputed biochemist lead a delegation of doctors in London in 1946. The British Museum and the University of Oxford donated a significant number of books and journals to Hungary (those that could not get here because of the war).

As for institutions and organisations, the Hungarian Group of the PEN Club was founded in 1946. The character of these initiations was democratic and “bottom-up”: autonomous groups, NGOs, associations, societies were established, with no state interference, that aimed at getting to know each others’ culture. Perhaps the most significant of these organisations was the Magyar-Angol Baráti Társaság, chaired by Kodály Zoltán. The Secretary of Education and Religion, Keresztúry Dezső also though it important to improve these relationships, as he explained it in a letter to the Secretary General of the British Council in 1946. However, a comprehensive and general treaty on cultural co-operation was not signed until the signature of the peace treaty (1947).

In spite of the growing signs of the Cold War and the break-up of Europe into two camps, there was no sign of recession in the cultural relations. Several British artists arrived in Hungary, for instance Arthur Bliss, the composer and Stephen Spender, the poet. The male choir of Hungarian Workers’ Choirs Association (Magyarországi Munkásdalegyletek Szövetsége férfikara) won the first prize at an international festival in Langollen. The BBC popularised the works of Bartók and Kodály. The “Modern Hungarian Art” exhibition was opened in London in 1948.

A comprehensive treaty on cultural co-operation was ready to be signed by December 1947. It would have included the establishment of English departments at colleges and universities, of cultural institutions, the granting of scholarships to scientists and artists, the regulation of the relationships between societies, the mutual acknowledgement of university degrees and a general plan of cultural and scientific co-operation.

Politics, however, decided otherwise. The growing hostility, the Cold War, the communist takeover in Central-Eastern European countries resulted in the reduction of contacts to a minimal level. The treaty was not signed. By the 1950s, the relationships practically ceased to be.

Signs of recuperation were visible from about 1963. This is the year of the signature of the above-mentioned treaty, and the establishment of the embassy of the United Kingdom in Budapest, Harmicad utca (which was probably under the observation of the Hungarian secret police) and the restart of the British Council’s activity. In 1987, a new treaty was signed by the Ministry of Education and the British Council. It included details of scientific, cultural and educational co-operation.

The British Council has been mentioned above several times. It also had a significant role in establishing and developing Anglo-Hungarian relationships. But what is, in fact, the British Council?

It is often called a “quango”, which means a “quasi non-governmental organisation.” (“Non-governmental organisation”, or NGO is “civil szervezet” in Hungarian.) This QNGO specialises in international educational and cultural developments. It was founded in 1934 and now it extends to 233 locations in 233 different countries.

The idea of the foundation of the BC came up in the 1920s on the part of an influential group of civil servants in the Foreign Office who felt the need for an organisation responsible for the promotion of British culture in the fields of education, science and technology. The reason for this was that after the First World War Britain felt the weakening of her power in the Empire. Instead of applying military force or classical colonial power (“hard power”) she choose to transform this into domination through cultural diplomacy (“soft power”). Another aspect of the foundation of the BC was the aim to spread British culture and its values of liberal parliamentary democracy to halt the rising tide of Fascism and dictatorships in general.

The geographical priorities of the BC were first extended to the Middle East and Latin America. Significantly, the Foreign Office prohibited the operation of the BC in the USA, learning the lesson from the USA’s sensitivity to British propaganda activities during the First World War. Only after the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor (1941) was it possible for the BC to extend its influence there.

The founder of the BC was Sir Reginald “Rex” Leeper (1888-1968), who entered the Foreign Office in 1920 and worked for the News Department. In 1930-31, he persuaded his colleagues of the necessity of “cultural propaganda” and arranged lecture tours in nearly 30 countries to raise donations. In 1934, the British Committee for Relations with Other Countries was set up, which later changed its name to the British Council for Relations with Other Countries, BC for short.

Although the BC was set up by and was partly financed by the Foreign Office, the BC has its own Chairman and Committee. Today, it has a total income of £550 million. It receives about £200 million from the government, the rest comes from teaching, examination fees and the revenues of publications, and donations.

The BC first worked through the British embassies and High Commissions of foreign countries. It appointed its first overseas representative in 1938 to Egypt, then established representatives in Portugal, Poland and Romania.

During the Second World War, much of its staff was evacuated from European countries. Meanwhile, centres were set up in Britain to provide educational and cultural services for refugees.

In the 1950s, due to the reduction of its overseas network, the decline of the government funding and the political tensions caused by the Cold War, and some controversy about what the BC’s task exactly was, the BC relocated much of its activity to African and Asian countries. It also replaced its practice to send British teachers to teach English in these areas, rather it concentrated on the training of local teachers.

The period between the 1960s and 80s was marked by ups and downs and longer or shorter crises in the history of the BC. In 1963, Great Britain failed to join the European Economic Community (the predecessor of the EU), mainly because of the protest of the French. It was interpreted by many as the lack of the lobby force of the BC and its neglect in relationship building. In 1976, the whole foreign policy of the UK was reviewed; the so-called Berrill Report recommended the outright abolition of the BC and the entire closure of the overseas network (obviously also due to the economic crisis of the 1970s). Because of the tense political situation, the BC was forced to withdraw from Iran (after the Islamist revolution), from Afghanistan (after its invasion by the Soviet Union) and Lebanon in the 1970s and 80s.

The BC had to revitalise its activities after 1989, when the Central-Eastern European countries replaced communism for democratic systems. There was a quick and huge need for English teachers and the BC was more than willing to help. Since then, the co-operation of Hungary (and our neighbours) and the BC has been unbroken and is manifested in language teaching, the preparation of teachers of English, the organisation of conferences and meetings, launching projects, donating books, granting scholarships and so on.

Sources and Recommended Reading

Abádi-Nagy Zoltán. “Anglisztika és amerikanisztika a mai Magyarországon.” Anglisztika és amerikanisztika: Magyar kutatások az ezredfordulón. Szerk. Frank Tibor and Károly Krisztina. Bp, Tinta Kiadó, 2009: 13-32.

Arday Lajos: „Great Britain’s policies in Eastern Europe.” AFT¹ (20) 1989: 25-47.

Arday Lajos: Az Egyesült Királyság és Magyarország: Nagy-Britannia és a magyar-angol kapcsolatok a 20. században. Budapest: Mundus, 2005.

Bán András: Nagy-Britannia és Magyarország, 1938-1941: Illúziók és csalódások. Budapest: Osiris, 1998.

Bánhegyi Zsolt: „Sir John Bowring, a magyar nyelv és irodalom barátja.” In: Magyar Tudomány, 2004/4

Beretczky Ágnes: „Magyar-brit kapcsolatok 1848-tól napjainkig.” Századok, 2004 (138. évf.), 6. sz. 1431-9. old.

Beretczky Ágnes: Scotus Viator és Macartney Elemér. Magyarország-kép változó előjelekkel, 1905-1945. Budapest: Akadémiai, 2005.

Ernyey Gyula, szerk. Britain and Hungary: Essays and Studies. Budapest: University of Craft and Design, 1999.

Fest Sándor. “Székfoglaló beszéd a debreceni egyetemen.” In: Fest, Skóciai Szent Margittól…, pp. 495-502.

Fest Sándor: Skóciai Szent Margittól a Walesi bárdokig. Magyar-angol történeti és irodalmi kapcsolatok. Szerk: Czigány Lóránt és Korompay H. János. Budapest: Universitas, 2000.

Gál István: „The British travel diary of Sándor Bölöni Farkas, 1831.” AFT (3) 1967: 23-48.

Gál István: Magyarország és az angolszász világ. Budapest: Argumentum, 2005.

Gergely András: Széchenyi eszmerendszerének kialakulása. Budapest: Akadémiai, 1972.

Gömöri György: „Az angolok magyarságképe VIII. Henriktől I. Györgyig.” Hogyan látjuk egymást? – Látjuk-e egymást (Közép-) Európában? Hollandiai Mikes Kelemen Kör, 43. Tanulmányi Napok. Hága: Mikes International, 2004: pp. 16-27.

Gömöri György: Angol-magyar kapcsolatok a 16-17. században. Budapest: Akadémiai, 1989.

Halász Gábor: „A fiatal Széchenyi.” Nyugat, 1934/10-11.

Haraszthy Éva: „Széchenyi and Engand.” New Hungarian Quarterly (25) 1967: 156-164.

Jankovics József: „A Hungarian traveller in late seventeenth century England.” AFT (7) 1973: 87-102.

Kunszabó Ferenc: Itt alkotni, teremteni kell. Széchenyi István eszmevilága. Budapest: Magvető, 1983.

Maller Sándor: „Az egykönyvű író?” (Bevezető tanulmány Bölöni Farkas Sándor Utazás Nyugat-Európában c. művéhez)

Molnár Judit és Pálffy István: „The intellectual contacts of Debrecen, the ’capital’ of Eastern Hungary with England in the 17th and 18th centuries.” AFT (18) 1985: 23-34.

N. Szabó József: Magyar kultúra – egyetemes kultúra. Magyarország kultúrdiplomáciai törekvései, 1945-48. Budapest: Akadémiai, 1998.

Országh László: „Anglomania in Hungary, 1780-1900.” AFT (12) 1979: 19-36.

Országh László: „Magyar utazók Angliában 1842-ben.” AFT (3) 1938: 112-132.

Péter Ágnes: „Egy romantikus mítosz nyomában (Shelley, Vörösmarty és Hölderlin)” Happy Returns. Essays for Professor István Pálffy. Debrecen, 1999.

Rácz István: „Shelley’s reception in Hungary.” AFT (18) 1985: 59-70.

Reichard Piroska: „Babits angol irodalmi tanulmányai.” Nyugat, 1924/7.

Sarbu Aladár. “Crisis in English?” HUSSE Papers. Vol. 1: Literature and Culture. Debrecen, 1995: 9-18.

Sarbu Aladár. “Declining English? Some Recent Anxieties.” The Study of Literature. Bp: Akadémiai, 2008: 355-365.

Sarbu Aladár. “The Study of English and American Literature: Hungarian Orientations.” The Study of Literature. Bp: Akadémiai, 2008: 325-354.

Sárközi Mátyás, szerk.: Hungaro-Brits: the Hungarian Contribution to British Civilisation. London, S.N., 2000.

Szász Imre. Ménesi út: regény és dokumentumok. Bp: Magvető, 1985. [about the Eötvös College]

Turóczi-Trostler József: „Babits és az európai irodalom története. A renaissance és felvilágosodás között.” Nyugat, 1935/10.

Virágos K. Zsolt et al. “The Life and Work of László Országh (1907-1984): A Round Table.” HJEAS 4.1-2. (1998): 367-406.

1^ Angol Filológiai Tanulmányok (KLTE, Debrecen)