Bibliography: Land Degradation in South Africa project

to help themselves and should be involved in their own decision-making

processes. For the participative approach to work, it is imperative that local

leaders be trained.

Privatisation is a development phase and not the starting point in development.

Not all services can be privatised.

It is a mistake to believe that sub-subsistence farmers are immune to change.

Ref ID : 2274

1234. Kokot, D.F. An investigation into the evidence bearing no recent climatic

changes over southern Africa, Pretoria:Government Printer, 1948.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : SOUTHERN AFRICA; IRRIGATION

Ref ID : 1497

1235. Kokot, D.F. Desert encroachment. Veld Trust 27(10):13-25, 1966.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : BUSH ENCROACHMENT; DESERTIFICATION ASSESSMENT

Ref ID : 2351

1236. Kopke, D. Past agricultural production in Ciskei. Fort Hare Papers 8(2),

1987.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION; CISKEI; CLIMATE CHANGE; SOCIOECONOMIC

ASPECTS; CLIMATE

Notes : The purpose of this article is to outline the potential of Ciskei as a

whole, and to concentrate - by way of illustration - on the former district of

King William's Town in terms of its past agricultural production. The author

used secondary data for the study. Ciskei is a country of considerable potential

for food production as evidenced by past agricultural output. Amongst these are

the variable climate, modern social attitudes and the new possibility of more

lucrative alternative employment in industry and services recently established

in the Ciskei. The author concluded that evidence of the past could be a key to

the present and future agricultural production in Ciskei. This article can be

found at the University of Fort Hare library. See ref. I.D. no: 2339.

Ref ID : 1460

1237. Koster, E. Requiem for SA grazing. STK Chronicles 6(3), 1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : GRAZING EFFECTS

Ref ID : 702

1238. Kotze, D.C. and Breen, C.M. Agricultural and land-use impacts on wetland

functional values. Report to the Water Research Commission. Investigational

Report 105.Anonymous Scottsville:Institute of Natural Resources. IR 105:i-70,

1994. Water Research Commission, Pretoria.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND USE; LAND DEGRADATION; HYDROLOGY; WETLANDS; EROSION; FIRE

Notes : Much information exists concerning wetland functional values and their

tremendous worth to society, but most of this is derived from short-term

research projects that examine a single process in one geographic location.

Extrapolation of these results may therefore be unreliable. Nevertheless,

general principles relating to the nature of wetlands and determinants of

wetland structure and function allow qualitative predictions to be made. The

water regime is the primary determinant of wetlands. It follows then, that when

assessing the impact of different land-uses, one of the most important factors

to consider is the degree to which the hydrological regime is altered.

Important factors concerning the nature of the wetland that should be considered

include: (1) susceptibility to erosion (determined by, inter alia: soil

erodibility, hydrogeomorphological setting and slope); (2) habitat value for

wetland-dependent species; and (3) extent and historical loss of wetlands in the

surrounding landscape. Land-users vary greatly in the impact they have on

wetland functional values. Crop production on drained wetland represents the

severest impact. This is followed by annual and then perennial pastures. The

grazing of undeveloped wetlands has the least severe impact and frequently

enhances the habitat value of wetlands. However, where poor grazing management

leads to erosional degradation, the loss of functional values may be

considerable. The effect of fire depends strongly on the timing and nature of

the fire and although substantial loss of functional values may occur, the

effect of burning on wetland functional values is often neutral or positive.

Dams fulfill certain wetland functions but are usually poor substitutes for

others. By synthesising information concerning the effect of different land-

users on wetland functional values, this review will assist in developing a

system for achieving trade-offs between maximising the benefits derived by

different wetland users and minimising the loss of functional values, which

benefit society at large. The need for this to be done will increase the demand

for resources.

Ref ID : 552

1239. Krohne, H. and Steyn, L. Landuse in Namaqualand: towards a community-based

management strategy for agricultural land use in the Namaqualand Reserves,

Leliefontein, Steinkopf and the Richtersveld, Athlone:Surplus People Project,

1991.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : LAND USE; NORTHERN CAPE; COMMUNAL AREA; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT;

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL

Ref ID : 1887

1240. Kroon, J. Hersiening van Nasionale vloedbestuursbeleid. Veld Trust

Conference on the conservation status of agricultural resources in the RSA. Du

Preez, J.F.Anonymous Pretoria:Unisa. , 1990. To prepare for expanding

development in the country and in consequence of the 1987/1988 floods, in 1989

the Minister of Environment Affairs and of Water Affairs decided to appoint a

steering committee to review the current policy on flood management. This paper

gives reasons for the revision of the flood management policy. The current

policy is summarized, and the philosophy and procedures being followed, are

described.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : CONSERVATION; FLOODS; POLICY

Ref ID : 856

1241. Kruger, F. The legacy of "Homeland" policy. The Ciskei: dumping ground of

the eastern Cape. In: Restoring the land. Environment and change in post-

apartheid South Africa. edited by Bennett, O. and Davies, W.London:Panos,

1991,p. 39-52.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : BETTERMENT PLANNING; CISKEI; COMMUNAL AREA

Notes : In a case study of the Ciskei, journalist Franz Kruger examines the

ecological and social consequences of intensive resettlement in a limited area.

Ref ID : 2036

1242. Kruger, F.J. Invasive woody plants in Cape fynbos with special reference

to the biology and control of Pinus pinaster.Anonymous Cape Town:Balkema. :47-

55, 1977.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : FYNBOS

Notes : Paper presented in the Proceedings of the 2nd National Weeds Conference

of South Africa, Balkema, Cape Town.

Ref ID : 1380

1243. Kruger, F.J. Use and management of mediterranean ecosystems in South

Africa-current problem.Anonymous Anonymous Berkley:U.S. Department of

Agriculture. :42-48, 1982. This paper summarises patterns of land-use and

management in mediterranean-type ecosystems of SA and, in greater detail,

aspects of current management of fynbos mountain catchments. The managed fire

regime and how it is likely to affect ecosystems is outlined. Controversial

questions about the effect of fire frequency on species diversity and on

catchment nutrient and water balance, and about the ecological effects of

unseasonal burning, indicate priorities for research. The biology of invasive

plants needs more thorough study. Techniques of applying fire need development

to allow more flexible management.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : LAND USE; FYNBOS; FIRE

Ref ID : 2038

1244. Kruger, F.J., Richardson, D.M., and Van Wilgen, B.W. Processes of invasion

by alien plants. In: The ecology and management of biological invasions in

southern Africa, edited by Macdonald, I.A.W., Kruger, F.J., and Ferrar, A.A.Cape

Town:Oxford University Press, 1986,p. 157-170.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : ALIEN PLANTS; SOUTHERN AFRICA

Ref ID : 2481

1245. Kruger, J.A. A land cover classification of the Ciskei region of the

Eastern Cape using Landsat TM Satellite data. Research report.Anonymous , 1995.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CISKEI; EASTERN CAPE; MAPS; MODELS; DIRECTORY; SATELLITE IMAGERY

Notes : The purpose of the study was to produce a land cover/land use

classification of the Ciskei region at a scale of 1:150 000 by means of Landsat

Thematic Mapper Satellite Data. The Landsat Thematic Mapper Satellite data was

used, following a multi-temporal approach. The International Imaging System

(IIS), Map and Image Processing System (MIPS) and ERDAS Image Processing System

were used for image processing. The data was imported and geo-referenced on the

IIS system. Various land cover classes were defined on the processed images.

The final raster data were prepared on MIPS and exported to ARCINFO (GIS) where

the map layouts were generated. The final 1:150 000 maps were plotted on a

design Jet 650c plotter. This report is obtainable from ARDRI, University of

Fort Hare. See ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 2504

1246. Kula & Nkonki Consortium Investigation on how subsistence farming could be

transformed into commercially viable activities through the establishment of

farmer support centres. Study commissioned by the Presidential task team in

collaboration with the Indepent Trust and the Department of

Agriculture.Anonymous Umtata:RRDI-UNITRA. , 1996.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : TRANSKEI; IRRIGATION; ECONOMIC ASPECTS; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT;

BETTERMENT PLANNING; AID

Notes : The purpose of the study was to investigate and develop the concept of

farmer support centres as a tool to enhance agricultural growth and development

in the Transkei region. Participatory farmer based workshops, personal

interviews, baseline surveys and literature were used. The study revealed that

the introduction of betterment schemes followed by the irrigation and maize

schemes were not only an economic disaster but also had a negative impact on

agricultural development in the area. The schemes created a lot of dependency

and failed to invest in human resource development. The study further revealed

that agriculture is not playing its rightful role in terms of job creation and

food production to the extent that 98% of food is not produced locally. This

has resulted in a loss of about R39 million gross regional income on a monthly

basis, just on vegetables, fruit, meat and grain crops. This report is

obtainable from RRDI, UNITRA, Umtata. See ID ref. no. 2339.

Ref ID : 681

1247. Kunz, R.P. Techniques to assess possible impacts of climate change in

southern Africa.University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg. , 1993. Master of

Science.

Reprint : Not in File,

Keywords : CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE; SOUTHERN AFRICA; RAINFALL; MODELS; MAPS;

VEGETATION DYNAMICS; RUNOFF; VEGETATION CHANGE

Notes : Summary in file. A phenomenon known as the natural "greenhouse effect"

(GHE) is responsible for regulating the earth's radiation balance. Certain

atmospheric trace gases called greenhouse gases, of which carbon dioxide (CO2)

and water vapour are key constituents, absorb and re-radiate outgoing infrared

radiation emitted by the warmed earth's surface back towards the earth.

However, anthropogenic increases in greenhouse-gas emissions may result in

additional absorptoin and re-radiation of infrared radiation. Scientists

believe that this enhancement of the natural GHE may, in the next 50 to 70

years, result in mean global air temperature and precipitation incrases, which

could have major implications for agricultural, hydrological and ecological

systems worldwide. Regional changes in climate are expected to differ from

average global projections and are, at the current level of scientific

understanding, still premature. Preliminary regional scenarios of climate change

were developed for southern Africa to facilitate impact assessment studies.

Atmospheric CO2 may incrase from its present level of 360 ppm to 560 ppm by the

year 2030, and is hypothesised to result n a 2 to 3oC temperature increase with

specific seasonal and diurnal trends, an as yet unknown change in rainfall

amount of seasonality and a reference evaporation increase of 3% per oC

temperature rise. Since plants are exposed to the natural environment, they are

sensitive to climate change. Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels may result in,

inter alia, increased plant photosynthetic rates, reduced transpiration per unit

leaf area and increased plant water use efficiency. A temperature increase may

result in faster photosynthetic rates, decreased water use efficiency, shorter

plant life-cycles and potentially longer growing seasons. However, there has

been no agreement in the literature on the combined effects on plant response of

CO2 changes coupled with changes in climate variables. The objectives of this

study were to develop interactive simulation modelling techniques to assess

regional impacts of, and sensitivities to, climate change on agricultural,

hydrological, water resources and ecological systems in southern Africa.

However, until the accuracy of regional climate change scenarios improves, any

impact assessments of regional climate change must, at present, be regarded as

preliminary. In order to simulate possible impacts of climate change in

southern Africa, the ACRU agrohydrological model and the CERES model were chosen

as suitable models. ACRU is a physical-conceptual and multi-purpose modelling

system revolving around a daily time-step, multi-layer soil water budget. The

CERES model is a physiologically-based, daily crop yield model which can

simulate the development and yield of maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and barley.

The ACRU and CERES models exhibit a number of common structural features which

allowed the two models to be computationally linked together. Modifications

were made to ACRU so that certain dynamical changes in vegetation, possibly

resulting from climate change, could be accounted for. The modifications were

introduced to account indirectly for the CO2-induced effects of increased plant

development resulting from warming temperatures, and transpiration suppression

resulting from increasing ambient CO2 levels. Possible effects of increasing

atmospheric CO2 levels on plant growth have not been accounted for. Because of

southern Africa's altitudinal range and diverse rainfall climate, the region has

been delineated into 712 relatively homogeneous response zones of differing

area, using as criteria local variations in, inter alia, mean annual rainfall

and altitude. The 712 response zones map was captured into a Geographic

Information System (GIS). The GIS was then linked with geocoded vegetation,

soils and climate information bases developed for the 712 zones and which are

required as input by the ACRU/CERES linked model. The ACRU/CERES model was used

together with the regional system infrastructure to assess possible climate

change impacts on the spatial distribution of frost occurrence, optimum plant

growth areas and potential maize yields in southern Africa. Using observed

temperature data in SA, a linear regression equation relating the first date and

the duration of minimum temperature occurrence to altitude and latitude was

developed, and subsequently used together with the 712 response zones to

determine the probability of light frost occurrence both spatially and

temporally. Results showed that a 2oC rise in temperature reduced considerably

the distribution in southern Africa of light frost occurrence and that the

duration of frost decreased by between 18 and 57%. Climate changes in

temperature and rainfall may result in geographical shifts in regions suitable

for optimum growth of commercial tree species and subtropical crops. Climate

threshold criteria for both successful tree and crop growth were used to

identify which of the 712 response zones were optimally suited to growth for

both present and possible future conditions. Results indicated that climate

change may benefit the horticultural industry to a greater extent than the

silvicultural industry. The ACRU/CERES model was used to assess, map and

interpret possible impacts of global climate change on the distributions of

potential maize yields in southern Africa attained under both nitrogen limited

and unlimited conditions. Results indicated that potential maize yields may

increase in a warmer, CO2-enriched environment and that crop yields depend

largely on rainfall and its variation over time. Nitrogen unlimited and limited

simulations showed similar trends in geographical distribution of maize yields,

only with respective values of yields being determined by nitrogen availability.

Climate change is likely to have marked effects on the terrestrial hydrological

system by affecting inputs to the system (eg. rainfall), certain processes

within the system (eg. vegetation dynamics) and output from the system (eg.

runoff generation). The response of runoff production to climate change was

analysed for both static and dynamic vegetation change. Initial results

illustrated that changes in mean annual runoff (MAR) to changes in rainfall were

approximately linear. The rate of change of MAR to changes in rainfall (mp) was

estimated on a regional basis for southern Africa using the ACRU model for both

present and three possible future climatic conditions. The mp index is a

measure of the amplification of expected changes in runoff to changes in

rainfall and was used effectively to identify sensitive regions to climate

change in southern Africa. Natural ecosystems, which exclude intensively

managed agricultural forested ecosystems, may also respond significantly to

climate change. The nature of plant responses to elevated CO2 concentrations is

complex, with both first and second order effects. First order effects include

potential impacts on certain plant processes, viz. photosynthesis and

transpiration. Second order effects include plant-to-plant interactions (eg.

competition) and plant-to-animal interactions (eg. herbivory). The concept of

net above-ground primary productivity, which is a quantitative expression of

agroclimatic potential, was used to determine possible first order effects of

climate change on natural ecosystems in southern Africa. The ACRU model and the

712 response zones were used to determine present and possible future mean

annual primary productivity. Results showed that primary productivity decreased

over southern Africa assuming a warmer, CO2-enriched future climate and no

change in rainfall. Climate change effects on carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios

were used to estimate possible second order impacts on terrestrial ecosystems in

southern Africa. The carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) determines the forage

quality of plant and a low C/N ratio results in good plant digestibility,

whereas a high C/N ratio results in a poor forage quality. The assimilation of

total carbon in natural ecosystems is a function of ambient CO2 concentrations,

air temperature and the leaf stomatal resistance to transpiring water vapour.

The assimilation of total nitrogen in natural ecosystems is a function of

nitrogen mineralisation rates, air temperature and the leaf stomatal resistance

to transpiring water vapour. For each of the 712 response zones, equations

estimating carbon and nitrogen assimilation rates were used to simulate C/N

ratios for present climate conditions and for a possible future climate. A

warmer, CO2-enriched future climate with no changes in rainfall produced

regional changes in C/N ratios. Areas where the C/N ratios decreased indicated

that the relative increase in assimilated nitrogen was greater than that for

carbon. Similarly, areas where the C/N ratios increased indicated that the

relative increases in assimilated carbon was greater than that for nitrogen.

Ref ID : 905

1248. L'Estrange, J.A. DDT dawn patrols free 1,500,000 morgen. Veld Trust

XIII(7):21-30, 1952.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : DEFORESTATION; POLLUTION; CONSERVATION

Notes : This article gives a brief rendition of the value of chemical and

biological warfare against SA's very rich supply of insects. The author

suggests that the two sciences are not necessarily opposed but can be

complementary. Both are engaged in freeing crops and beasts from the ravages if

insects and disease.

Ref ID : 623

1249. La Cock, G.D., Lubke, R.A., and Wilken, M. Dune movement in the Kwaaihoek

region of the eastern Cape, South Africa, and its bearing on future developments

of the region. Journal of Coastal Research 8(1):210-217, 1992.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SOIL EROSION; AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT; LAND DEGRADATION; EASTERN

CAPE; WIND EROSION

Abstract : The Kwaaihoek region of the eastern Cape coast, SA, consists of an 8

km long stretch of largely unspoiled dunefield. This dunefield is interrupted

by three vegetated rocky promontories, Kwaaihoek 1, Kwaaihoek 2, and Kwaaihoek

3. In response to a proposal for a road across this dunefield to a parking lot

behind Kwaaihoek 1, the rates and volumes of sand movement in the vicinity of

the proposed site were determined by the use of aerial photographs, long term

observations, and dune transects. The rate of dune movement of 2,9 m yr-1 for a

large dune compared favourably with other rates for dune movements in the

eastern Cape. At this dune the volume of sand shifted was 23,5 m3 m-1 yr-1.

These data were presented to the relevant authorities, resulting in the

cancellation of the proposed road.

Ref ID : 931

1250. La Cock, G.D., Palmer, A.R., and Everard, D.A. Re-assessment of the area

and conservation status of subtropical transitional thicket (Valley Bushveld) in

the eastern Cape, southern Africa. S Afr J of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and

Cartography 15(6):231-235, 1990.

Reprint : In File,

Keywords : SATELLITE IMAGERY; CONSERVATION; STATISTICS; SAVANNA; EASTERN CAPE;

SOUTHERN AFRICA

Abstract : The Subtropical Transitional Thicket (STT) is the most extensive

vegetation type in the eastern Cape, southern Africa, and the type most in need

of conservation attention in the region. The STT is under increasing pressure

from debushing and over-utilisation by domestic herbivores. Historically, the